PRIDE AND PREJUDICE PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS DISCUSSION

PRIDE AND PREJUDICE PAST PAPERS PU LAHORE 2016 TO 2018A 019 PAST PAPER PROSE

2018/A

ASMA SHEIKH TUTOR ANNUAL 2019 PROSE

. DISCUSS HOW JANE AUSTIN USES IRONY AND SATIRE IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE TO CRITICIZE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF 19TH CENTURY ENGLISH SOCIETY.

2017/A

. explore the sigificance of social class in pride and prejudice.and how it impacts relationship and marriage. 2017/A

2016\A

PRIDE AND PREJUDICE IS HIGH COMEDY, DEVASTATING SATIRE AND COMPASSIONATE PANORAMA. SUBSTANCIATE CRITICALLY. 2016/A

How_To_Answer_Exam_Questions

#How_To_Answer_Exam_Questions
(MA ENGLISH)

Pay attention! These quick tips should be common sense but many students who are under exam stress fail to see their mistakes.
We’re going to help you avoid a major exam disaster by pointing you in the right direction.
Here’s our top exam writing tips to help you understand how to answer exam questions:

Practice Past Papers
There really is no better way to get exam ready than by attempting past papers. Most exam bodies should have past papers available online but your teacher will get you started on these in class.
This process isn’t just about preparing an answer for a specific question, it’s about understanding how you approach a question in an exam, how to structure your answer, the timings you should
assign and what information will get marks.

 Read All Questions Carefully
The stress of the situation can cause you to misread a question,plan your answer out, start writing your response and then realise you made a mistake and wasted vital time. Even though you generally
won’t be writing answers to every
question on the paper, reading all questions thoroughly will ensure
you make the right choices and can highlight how much you know about the topic.
Don’t forget to attempt all questions that you have selected.
However, be careful of MCQ questions with negative marking. If you’re not sure of the answer you could cost yourself some valuable marks.
Manage Your Time
This is where you need to be strict on yourself. Once you have assigned a time limit for each question, you MUST move on once you hit it or you won’t be able to
give the next question your full
attention.
Remember to leave yourself some time at the end to go back over your answers and add in little notes or pieces of information about the topic. You never know, this could help bump you up a grade!
Structure Your Answer
Don’t just jump into writing your answer. Take the first few minutes to plan the structure of your essay which will save you time when you are delving into meaty parts.
Always stay on topic; if you’re discussing the role of women in society as portrayed by the author in Of Mice and Men , don’t digress and start outlining other themes in the book for example.
Most essays should have an introduction, three main points and a conclusion. A lot of students see a conclusion as a final sentence to finish the piece off. A strong
conclusion give an A grade student
the chance to shine by bringing
everything together and fortifying
their opinion.
Explore Both Sides of an Argument
Building your argument in the main
body of your exam answer will give
your overall opinion credibility. English language questions, for example, encourage you to explore both sides of an argument and then conclude with a critical analysis of your answer.
Many questions you approach will
look as though they seek a straightforward answer but in reality they want you to fully outline a structured essay. Don’t fall into the trap of providing a one-sided view, get your hands dirty and open your mind to other possibilities.
Review Your Answers Thoroughly
Smart students can still make the mistake of handing their answer book in without checking through what they have written. Proofread your answers as much as you can to correct any spelling mistakes and add any extra comments you think are worth mentioning.
You will be surprised what you can spot in those last few minutes. This is your last chance to throw in that quotation, list other relevant points or even draw a quick diagram . Now is not the time to drop your game, show the examiner what you’re made of!
Remember, the exams are not designed to trick you. Don’t panic on the day of your exam or this brain freeze could mean that you get a lower grade that you truly deserve. Convince yourself that you
know how to answer exam questions and your almost there.

Important_themes_in_DR_FAUSTUS

#Important_themes_in_DR_FAUSTUS:
🔴🌻🔴🌻🔴🌻🔴🌻🔴🌻🔴🌻🔴🌻
One of the most important and prominent themes in Doctor Faustus is by far the conflict between good and evil in the world and the human soul.  Marlowe's play set the precedent for religious works that were concerned with morals and suffering.  In the play, Doctor Faustus is frequently accompanied by two angels, one good and one evil.  Both spirits try to advise him on a course of action, with the evil one usually being more influential over his mind.  These two angels embody the internal battle that is raging inside of Faustus.  On one hand, he has an insatiable thirst for knowledge and supreme power; on the other hand, Faustus realizes that it is folly to relinquish heavenly pleasures for fleeting mortal happiness.
Although society is accustomed to believing that good will always prevail, evil gains the upper hand in Marlowe's play.  Innocent and often devout men are tortured at Faustus's delight and command.  He partakes in many pleasures with devils and is even shown the seven deadly sins in person.  Thus, Faustus is depicted as doomed from the very beginning.  Although he has moments of contrition, he quickly shoves aside thoughts of God and turns to evil.  Marlowe attempted to express to his audience that while prayer and repentance are the paths to heaven, sin and mortal pleasure are very hard temptations to pass over.
Lucifer's acquisition of Faustus's soul is especially delightful for him because Faustus was once a good and devout soul.  Even during his last moments on earth, Faustus curses himself for willingly burning the scriptures and denouncing God.  In Doctor Faustus, Marlowe shows the reader that everything in the mortal world is a double-edged sword.  In his never-ending quest for knowledge, Faustus exemplifies how even scholarly life can have evil undertones when studies are used for unholy purposes.  Doctor Faustus's miserable defeat against the forces of evil within and without enlighten the reader to beware a surfeit of anything.
A second theme in Doctor Faustus is that of greed.  Like many of Marlowe's heroes, Faustus was self-driven by greed and ambition.  In this case, the Doctor tries to satiate his appetite for knowledge and power.  These heroes forget their responsibilities to God and their fellow creatures.  Instead, they attempt to hide their weak characters with a megalomaniacal insanity.  While Faustus is amused by the seven deadly sins, he does not realize that he is guilty of every single one, namely avarice and jealousy.  In effect, Marlowe presents to the reader a good soul gone bad-a brilliant scholar who squanders his time with necromancy and is later courted by the devil himself.  Although he is frequently surrounded by powerful heads of state, beautiful women and servile devils, Faustus is never truly happy.  He tries to bury his unrest with luxury and debauchery, to no avail.  What Faustus does not realize is that he craves happiness and salvation, not wealth and damnation.  Instead, in a tragic cycle of greed and despair, Faustus sadly wallows in riches up to the time of his miserable death.
A third important motif in the play is that of salvation through prayer.  While Doctor Faustus is an example of what happens to a wayward soul, the old man represents the devout Christian soul.  The old man begs Faustus to repent, regardless of the tortures that the devils inflict on him for this.  He clings to his faith to the very end and even Mephostophilis is wary of harming him because of his good soul.  Thus, the old man serves as a foil to Faustus's misery and damnation.
A fourth theme in Doctor Faustus is that of the tragic hero.  Despite his unholy soul, Faustus is often viewed by audiences with pity and compassion.  A tragic hero is a character that the audience sympathizes with despite his/her actions that would indicate the contrary.  Faustus is not the mere shell of a man in the play, existing only to represent the evil in the world.  He is a veritable human being with a range of emotions and thoughts.  He displays pride, joy, contrition and self-doubt quite frequently.  At many times, Faustus alternately displays his cowardice and foolish strength against the devils.  Thus, Faustus's one saving grace with the audience is his identifiable character.  Although the Doctor himself does not care for humanity, many find themselves identifying with his all too human dreams of power, knowledge and lechery.  Unfortunately, Faustus's humanity was not enough in the play to make him repent and save him from the depths of hell.

Contexts of poetry n drama part

Contexts of poetry n drama part 1 Context of Chaucer
Chaucer is regarded as father of English poetry. In his prologue he gives us detail of his age with s reference of different characters. His prologue is d mirror of his society. He takes characters from all fields of life n depict whole society in his prologue. The prologue is a social documentary.
(Yhan sy next jis character ki text aye usk intro k liye 2 3 sentences likhain)
After that explain given or mentioned verses from text

[28/05, 4:13 a.m.] Hania Ali: Context of John Donne
John Donne is a poet of 17th century. He is first metaphysical poet. In his poems he gives d concept of combination if body n soul n says combination of soul n body is compulsory in love.
(Next jis poem ki text aye us poem ka intro dain for instance u have to explain text from "go n catch a falling star" then do give intro of poem in d context as
This poem has been written in cynical mood. We can say this poem is about antigen and hostile to fair sex. These Lines r opening or closing lines of d song. He wants to tell that women r a bundle of contradiction. He laughs at her inconstancy n faithlessness......
after that explain given verses from Donne

[28/05, 4:13 a.m.] Hania Ali: Context of Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex is d king of Thebes. He is a ruler who is noble, wise, sincere, honest and loyal with his state. A plague spread over Thebes. All Thebes is in miserable condition. People r losing their Lives. Babies die unborn. All labour is vain. The death is dancing in d streets of Thebes. There is starvation due to which people die. There is nobody who solve d problem. All people come to Oedipus coz they have believe in his ability which he has shown in d matter of sphynx by solving her riddle.
(Next jo text paper Mae aai hae us sy phly ki thori c detail daini hae)
After that explain d given verses from related book

[28/05, 4:13 a.m.] Hania Ali: Context of Dr faustus
Dr faustus is a learned scholar of whitenberg. He has inordinate ambitions. His resolution in his aims brings about his death n destruction. He wants to gain super human power and for this sake he sails his soul to devil and gets worldly pleasure only for 24 hours n becomes damned forever.... next jo text paper Mae aay us sy phly ki story btain in short n explain mentioned verses from Dr faustus

[28/05, 4:13 a.m.] Hania Ali: Context of The importance of being Ernest
This play is truly a satire on absurdities n foolishness of people of that time. This play deals with certain farcical remarks n situations which r witty n amusing one. The basic target of writer is to satire on hi society of English country of that time. Oscar wild in this play tries to prick the aristocracy class n do doubt he successfully does this job.
Next given verses sy phly ki situation discuss kren n after that explain d verses given in paper

Difference Between Morphology and Syntax

😊❤Difference Between Morphology and Syntax😊❤

Linguistics is the study of language and its structure. Morphology and syntax are two major subdisciplines in the field of linguistics. Other subdisciplines of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences and morphology is the study of the formation of words. The final aim of both these fields is to study how meaning is produced in language. The main difference between morphology and syntax is that morphology studies how words are formed whereas syntax studies how sentences are formed. In this article, we’ll look at these fields in more detail.

This article covers,

1. What is Morphology
2. Types of Morphemes
2. What is Syntax
3. Difference Between Morphology and Syntax

What is Morphology
Morphology is another important subdiscipline of linguistics. Morphology studies the structure of words. It specifically examines how words are formed by putting together morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest grammatical and meaningful unit of a language. Different languages have different morphemes and different rules about the formation of words.

------------
Types of Morphemes
Morphemes can be divided into two basic categories called free morphemes and bound morphemes. A free morpheme is a meaningful unit that can stand alone as a word. In other words, it is a word made up of only one morpheme. For example;

mat, trust, slow, cat, old, fast, bring, man

A bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone; it is always bound to another morpheme.  Thus, a bound morpheme has no meaning on its own. For example;

slowly, talked, unthankful, blackish

Bound morphemes attached to the front of a word are called prefixes (distaste, untrue, etc.) and bound morphemes attached to the back of a word are called suffixes (valuable, sexual, etc.).

Bound Morphemes can be divided further into two categories called derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are morphemes that are added to the base form of a word to create a new word.

Example 1:

Able ⇒ Ability

(adjective)  → (noun)

Send ⇒ Sender

(verb)→ (noun)

Example 2:

Use⇒ Misuse

Stable ⇒ Unstable

(Meaning is totally changed.)

As seen from these examples, adding a derivational morpheme will change either the meaning or the class of the word.

Inflectional morphemes are a type of bound morphemes that do not cause a change in the meaning or word class: they serve as grammatical markers and indicate some grammatical information about a word.

Laughed –Past Tense

cats  – Plural

Swimming – Progressive
====================

What is Syntax?
Syntax is a discipline of linguistics that studies the structure of sentence. Syntax is the study of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in any language. It pays attention to components such as word order, agreement, and the hierarchical structure of language. The meaning of any sentence in any language depends on the syntax.

For example, the sentences in the English language often formed by following a subject with a verb and the direct object. It is the positions of these words that convey the subject-object relationship. Look at the following sentences.

The cat ate the mouse.

The mouse ate the cat.

These two sentences convey two different meanings although they contain the exact same words. It is the word order of the sentences that affect the meaning of these two sentences.

The parts of a language are divided into different syntactic categories. Most sentences can be divided into two sections called subject and predicate. These two parts are also made of different words. Syntactical classes of words are known as parts of speech.
================
Difference Between Morphology and Syntax
Definition
Morphology: Morphology studies the structure of words.

Syntax: Syntax studies the structure of sentences.

Smallest Unit
Morphology: Morphemes are the smallest units in morphology.

Syntax: Words are the smallest unit in syntax.

Content
Morphology: Morphology studies how words are formed.

Syntax: Syntax  studies the word order and agreement

Charles Lamb as a Romantic Essayist

Charles Lamb as a Romantic Essayist

Charles Lamb

Charles Lamb, an English writer is best known for his essays.  Although he wrote poems and books, he is mainly known as an essayist. E.V.Lucas, his principal biographer, has called him the most loved figure in English Literature.

Charles Lamb in his Essays of Elia, uses the pseudonym of Elia. Dream Children: A Reverie, is an essay from this collection which was published in the form of a book, this was later followed by the second volume titled Last Essays of Elia. Lamb’s writing style by nature is very romantic.

The Essays are very personal, as they are somewhat fictionalized stories of himself. It tells us of what his life would have been had he made different decisions in his life. In his essays, he mentions his family members often with different names. In Dream Children: A Reverie, he fantasizes his life, had he married his beloved Ann Simmons, who he calls Alice W. in the Elia essays.

Lamb is chiefly remembered for his “Elia” essays, which are celebrated for their witty and ironic treatment of everyday subjects. The “Elia” essays are characterized by Lamb’s personal tone, narrative ease, and wealth of literary allusions. Never didactic, the essays treat ordinary subjects in a nostalgic, fanciful way by combining humour, pathos, and a sophisticated irony ranging from gentle to scathing.

Lamb conjures up humour and pathos in his ‘Elian’ essays. Although Dream Children begins on a merry note, the dark side of life soon forces itself upon Lamb’s attention and the comic attitude gives way to melancholy at the end of the essay. Throughout the essay Lamb presents his children in such a way that we never guess that they are merely fragments of his imagination – their movements, their reactions, and their expressions are all realistic. It is only at the end of the essay that we realize that the entire episode with his children is a merely a daydream. We are awakened by a painful realization of the facts.

Babes in the Woods

The essay, Dreams Children in itself is quite melancholy as most romantic essays are. In it, Lamb reminisces his childhood by telling his children stories of when he was younger. The subject of death is mentioned very often. The fictionalized Charles Lamb, the father, tells his children stories of their deceased great- grand mother Field. He mentions that they recently had heard of the horrifying ballad of the Babes in the Wood. He also tells them stories of his deceased older brother John L. and how he misses him.

His essays are allusive, which is peculiar to romantic essays. Lamb, rambles throughout the narratives with ease and is able to return to the point. He often does it in his writings. This allusive quality is seen in Dream Children when he begins talking about his grandmother Field, he then rambles to talk of the house she worked in, and later to talk about the mantel piece carving of the Babes in the Wood. He also makes use of parentheses, which gives us an insight to the characters stream of consciousness. The parentheses in, Dream Children, mostly show us the observations of the father, which tell us more about the children’s expressions for dramatic emphasis.

Lambs essays are highly evocative, and the reader feels empathy towards the characters. This is a characteristic quality of the Romantic Essayists.  In Dream Children, the narrator comments on how similar the daughter’s face is to the mother and he can’t tell which of the two is in front of him, but only in the end do we realize that the entire story was just a fragment of his imagination.

“the most loved writer in English literature”
– E.V.Lucas on Lamb in his biography

His essays have a reflective quality; he talks about his schooling days in Christ’s Hospital in the essay, Christ’s Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago wherein he speaks of himself in the third person as “L”. Rosamund Gray is another essay in which he reflects upon his feelings for Ann Simmons as the titular character and how their relationship doesn’t go too far due to Miss Gray passing away.

To conclude we can see that Lambs essays are very personal. They possess humour and pathos like most romantic works of literature. Lamb is also praised for his allusive quality which is noted by many literary critics. And above all he is highly evocative, a quality possessed by all Romantic writers.

Past papers 2015_2018 annual UOS

PAST PAPER PRIDE AND PREJUDICE
OBJECTIVES 2015_2018

who is Lidya?why did she elope?
:who is kitty?
:who isMr Collin?
:who is Mrs Bennet?
:who is georgina?
:who is caroline Benglay?
:who is Mr fitz william Darcy?
:can  u briefly portray  the character of Mrs Bennet?
[8/25, 8:20 PM] Uos Zunaira Ahmad Karl: subjective part
:How far the novel "pride and prejudice"is justify through the pride  of Darcy and prejudice of Elizabeth?Elaborate?
:Critically analyse Jane Austen novelist who works artistically on two inches of ivory?
:Write
  comprehnsive  note  on the relationship  between   Darcy  and  Elizabeth ,
culminating in their ideal marriage based upon true  human feelings of love and romance. Elucidat?
:How far the character Elizabethis convincing and closer to real life ?How far her role is ideal as a heroin in pride  and prjudice?
:Elaboratehow Darcy is convincing and closer to the atitude  of elits class in a society ?how far he is an ideal hero in pride and prejudice?
:Pride and prejudiceis a high comedy,devastatin-g,satire and  compassionate panorama.criti-cally comment??😋

Dr_Faustus_as_a_Tragic_Hero | #As_Per “#Poetics” #by_Aristotle

#Dr_Faustus_as_a_Tragic_Hero |
#As_Per “#Poetics” #by_Aristotle

If the play “Dr. Faustus” is a tragedy then undoubtedly its character Dr. Faustus is a successful tragic hero. After going through the whole play, its plot, techniques used by the writer and character analysis of Dr. Faustus, any critic can safely say that Dr. Faustus falls in the category of best tragic heroes just like Oedipus Rex. Aristotle has appreciated the tragic character of Oedipus Rex in his book “Poetics”. In fact, whenever he talks about an ideal tragic hero, he refers to Oedipus Rex. Meaning thereby, Oedipus was the best tragic hero in the eyes of Aristotle when he wrote “Poetics”. Even after Aristotle, many scholars including critics have appreciated it. However, it cannot be denied that the majority of critics feels that Oedipus Rex has no role in the play and he is just a puppet in the hands of gods.

Let us leave Oedipus Rex for some other day and talk about “Dr. Faustus”. Before going in detail, it is important to mention here that there is no new definition of tragedy and tragic hero; if there is any, it is not important for us as we are bound to define Dr. Faustus as a tragic hero keeping in view the parameters, given in “Poetics” by Aristotle. We may have another choice; we may talk about Shakespearean tragedy or any modern tragedy and compare it with “Dr. Faustus” but the basic elements of a tragic hero are the same. Hence, conventional definition, given by Aristotle, is enough to discuss whether Dr. Faustus is a tragic hero or not.

If you have read “Poetics” then its Chapter XIII should be in your consciousness, where Aristotle in detail motions all the characteristics of an ideal tragic hero. We are not going in detail about these characteristics; whether they are right or wrong, it is not our concern. We are here to judge whether Dr. Faustus fits in those characteristics or not. Characteristics of an ideal tragic hero are

He should be a nobleman.
Character should neither be pious nor a complete sinner.
He should fall from prosperity to adversity.
His sufferings are necessary; however, death is not essential in every case.
Although he should suffer, yet he must suffer because of his wrongdoings and not because of circumstances.
It is necessary for every writer to keep in mind the above said key elements if he wants a perfect tragedy and an ideal tragic hero. It seems that Christopher Marlowe had the knowledge of all these ingredients; that is the reason his character “Dr. Faustus” fulfills all these necessary requirements of a conventional tragedy.

Firstly, from the very beginning of the play, spectators witness that Dr. Faustus is a nobleman. He is famous. He is not a common person but an extraordinary scholar, having knowledge of every field of life. We can also not say that he is a poor man as he is a well-known person of his locality. He, somehow, fulfills the requirement of a tragedy as far as the character’s noble birth is concerned.

If it is not the case, many writers, including Shakespeare have changed the taste of tragedy by presenting common persons from everyday life such as whores, butchers, cobblers, etc. They have proved Aristotle wrong and demonstrated that catharsis is possible without “depicting a character of only noble birth”. In the case of Dr. Faustus, when spectators watch the sufferings of Dr. Faustus, they feel pity for him and at the same time fear for his wrongdoings. Hence, in both the cases Dr. Faustus has the ability to become a tragic hero.

Secondly, when we find that Dr. Faustus is going to sign an agreement with Lucifer/Mephistopheles somewhere in his heart, there is fear of God. He knows that he is going to follow the wrong path. He knows the boundaries of God and feels that only these can take him to the right path. No doubt, he signs the agreement and this act makes him a sinner but it does not mean that he is entirely an evil kind of person. Any person, having a prudent mind, can say that it is just a simple mistake. He wants to get more and more knowledge. He selects black magic because he wants powers too. In the end, we find him repenting on his sins.

Although, he becomes arrogant yet this is what Aristotle calls “Hamartia”. It is the “err” of Dr. Faustus, which leads him towards his destruction. There is hardly any critic, who says that Dr. Faustus is purely bad or evil kind of person. Most of the critics agree that Dr. Faustus is the combination of both good and evil, due to which he perfectly fits for tragedy and becomes a perfect tragic hero.

Thirdly, there is no denying the fact that Dr. Faustus falls from prosperity to adversity. He signs the agreement, enjoys life, does what he want and ultimately suffers. In the start, he is prosperous but at the end of the play, we see his miserable condition. Hell becomes his permanent destination.

Suffering is one of the most important ingredients of tragedy because catharsis always depends on suffering. In this play, Dr. Faustus, in the climax, cries. He seeks help but cannot find any refuge. Spectators cry with Dr. Faustus. He regrets but no help reaches for him. Finally, he meets with his death. Notwithstanding, it is not the death of Dr. Faustus, which frightens us but his everlasting agonies. His sufferings in the eternal world terrify us. Dr. Faustus, in this way, justifiably completes this requirement of tragic hero too.

As regards the last element of tragedy, circumstances on no occasion are responsible for the downfall of Dr. Faustus. Christopher Marlowe has very beautifully knitted this element of tragedy. Examine in detail the character of Dr. Faustus from any perspective, you would witness that it is one and only Dr. Faustus, who is responsible for his destruction. Unlike Oedipus Rex, he has free will. He chooses black magic just because he wants powers and knowledge. On many occasions, a good angel warns him but he does not seek forgiveness from God. Even, he makes fun of the old man, who advises him. He blindly follows evil just to enjoy the luxuries of life. Thus, circumstances by no mean are responsible for the fall of Dr. Faustus. His own desires force him to choose the wrong path. Like so, Dr. Faustus also fulfills this requirement of an ideal tragic hero.

Suffice is to say that Dr. Faustus is a perfect tragic hero. In the traditional definition of tragedy, we do not find any loophole in his character. He is noble by birth, (even if he is not noble he fits for tragedy….see successful plays of Shakespeare such as Othello, in which a moor is picture-perfect tragic hero), he is not too good nor too bad, he falls from prosperity to adversity and at the end he suffers because of hamartia (his hamartia is his pride). All these components of tragedy make Dr. Faustus a wonderful and everlasting tragic hero. Due to the availability of these elements of a tragic hero in Dr. Faustus, students of English Literature would keep seeking guidance from this character forever.

MA English - Part-1. (Fiction). UOS 2015 TO 2018

MA English - Part-1.
(Fiction).
Novel: ª€ŠPride & Prejudiceª€‹
Author: Jane Austen.
Past Papers’ Questions:
2nd Annual 2015:
(Short Qs):
(i): Who is Lidya?.
(ii): Who is Kitty?.
(Subjective):
1: How far the Novel "Pride & Prejudice" is Justified through the Pride of Darcy and Prejudice of Elizabeth? Elaborate.
2: Critically analyse Jane Austen as a novelist who works artistically on two inches of ivory?
2nd Annual 2016:
(Short Qs).
(i): Who is Lydia? Why did she elope?.
(ii): Who is Mr. Collin?.
(Subjective).
1: Write a comprehensive note on the relationship between Darcy & Elizabeth, culminating in their ideal marriage based upon
true human feelings of Love & Romance. Elucidate.
1st Annual 2017.
University of Sargodha

A_PASSAGE_TO_INDIA - E. M. Forster

#A_PASSAGE_TO_INDIA - E. M. Forster
#Summary
✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡〰✡

A Passage to India was divided by E. M. Forster into three parts. The first part, "Mosque," begins with what is essentially a description of the city of Chandrapore. The physical separation of the city into sections, plus the separation of earth and sky, are indicative of a separation of deeper significance that exists between the Indian and English sectors.

This novel deals with human relationships, and the theme that determines its plot line is introduced in this section: "Is it possible for the Indian and the Englishman to be friends?" To show both sides of this question, the reader is first introduced to Dr. Aziz and his friends. Aziz is a Moslem doctor who practices at the government hospital in Chandrapore under the supervision of Major Callendar. Among Aziz's friends are Hamidullah, an Indian barrister who has lived in England; Nawab Bahadur, an influential landowner; and Mahmoud Ali. In the opening chapters these men are shown discussing the English officials who govern under the British Raj in India.

Among the English faction, who also discuss the Anglo-Indian relationship, are Mr. Turton, the Collector; Major Callendar, the English doctor; Mr. McBryde, the police magistrate; and Ronny Heaslop, the city magistrate and the latest official to assume duties in Chandrapore.

Between these groups, or outside them, are Cyril Fielding, the English principal of the government school, whose allegiance belongs to neither group; Mrs. Moore, mother of Ronny Heaslop, who has come to India as chaperone to Miss Adela Quested, Ronny's intended fiancee; Professor Godbole, a Hindu who is separated from the Moslems by his religion and* from the English by his religion and nationality; and the English missionaries, Mr. Graysford and Mr. Sorley, who share none of the arrogance of English officialdom as they attempt to convert the Indians to Christianity.

The story opens with Aziz's arrival at Hamidullah's house, where he is to spend a social evening with his friends. Their conversation centers upon the indignities that the Indian must suffer at the hands of the English officials and their wives. Young Ronny Heaslop, whom they dub the "red-nosed boy," is a particular object of ridicule.

Aziz is summoned to the house of his superior, Major Callendar. He is late in arriving and when he arrives, he finds the major gone. Two English women preempt his tonga and on the walk back to his house he encounters Mrs. Moore at the mosque. The old lady endears herself to Aziz by her innate understanding of him and of Moslem custom; he calls her an Oriental.

Later, at the English club, Adela Quested expresses her desire to see the "real India" and is advised by a passerby to "try seeing Indians." To humor her Mr. Turton offers to give a "Bridge Party," a garden party ostensibly designed to bridge the distance between the English and the Indian, and to give Adela and Mrs. Moore the opportunity to meet socially some of the upper-class Indians.

At Mrs. Moore's cottage that night Ronny and his mother discuss her encounter with Aziz at the mosque. Ronny shows his unmistakable prejudice and Mrs. Moore is appalled at his inhumane attitude. On her way to bed, she exhibits a sympathetic response to a wasp, one of the least of India's creatures.

On the outskirts of the town, Mr. Sorley, the younger and more liberal of the two English missionaries, while willing to accept that there may well be a heaven for mammals, cannot bring himself to admit the lowly wasp.

The garden party given by the Turtons only serves to show more clearly the division of peoples, as each group keeps to itself. Cyril Fielding, who mingles freely with the Indians, is impressed by the friendliness of Mrs. Moore and Adela and invites them to tea at his home. They are also invited for a Thursday morning visit — which never materializes — to the home of the Bhattacharya's, a Hindu couple.

That evening, in a discussion with Ronny, Mrs. Moore is again appalled by her son, and quotes to him from the Bible, reminding him that God is love and expects man to love his neighbor (though she herself has found Him less satisfying in India than ever before). Ronny humors her, reminding himself that she is old.

At tea at Fielding's house, Mrs. Moore and Adela visit pleasantly with Aziz and Professor Godbole, enigmatic Hindu associate of Mr. Fielding. The kindness of Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested prompts Aziz to invite them on an outing to the Marabar Caves, which they accept. Ronny Heaslop arrives at Fielding's cottage to take his mother and Adela to a game of polo; his discourtesy to Aziz and his arrogant demeanor toward all Indians causes Adela and Ronny to quarrel, and Adela tells Ronny she cannot marry him.

Later the young people go for a ride with Nawab Bahadur, and when the automobile is involved in an accident with an unidentified animal on a back road, they are drawn together once more and announce their engagement. Mrs. Moore accepts the news calmly, but when told of the accident she murmurs, "A ghost!"

Aziz, pleased with the friendship shown him by Cyril Fielding, shows the English professor a picture of his dead wife, a courtesy equal to inviting Fielding behind the purdah, the highest honor an Indian can give.

The next section, "Caves," begins with a detailed description of the Marabar Caves, the peculiar hollow caverns within the equally curious Marabar Hills that rise from an otherwise flat area outside the city of Chandrapore.

It is to these caves that Aziz has planned an elaborate trip for Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested. He has also included Fielding and Godbole in the invitation. Unfortunately, Fielding and Godbole miss the train and Aziz is left in full charge of the expedition, which begins with a train ride and ends with an elephant ride to the immediate vicinity of the caves. In the first cave Mrs. Moore is terrified by an echo and the press of the crowd and declines to go farther.

Aziz, a guide, and Adela go on alone. Adela, pondering her engagement to Ronny, unwisely asks Aziz if he has more than one wife. The excitable little Indian, upset by her queries, dashes into a cave to recover his composure. Adela wanders aimlessly into another cave and is supposedly assaulted by someone there. She rushes down the side of the hill, where she meets Nancy Derek, an English companion to a maharani, who has brought Fielding to the caves. Nancy returns the overwrought Adela to Chandrapore.

In the meantime Aziz, knowing nothing of what has happened to Adela, entertains his other friends and returns with them by train. At the station he is met by Mr. Haq, the police inspector, who arrests him for assaulting Miss Quested.

Fielding alienates himself from the English by siding with Aziz. The English rally around Adela and press for a quick conviction. Mrs. Moore, now sunk into a state of apathy, refuses to admit that Aziz may be guilty but also refuses to testify in his behalf in court; Ronny arranges passage for her to England. On the way she dies; her name, however, becomes for a time a legend to the natives of Chandrapore.

At the trial, Adela Quested, who has been in a state of shock since the incident at the caves, suddenly finds her mind clear again and exonerates Aziz. Her withdrawal of the charge against Aziz causes her to be ostracized by the English. Fielding reluctantly offers her the use of his cottage while he is absent on official business, and Ronny eventually breaks their engagement. Disillusioned by her experience in India, Adela returns to England; and Fielding persuades Aziz to drop a damage suit against her.

Two years later the setting of the novel shifts to the Hindu state of Mau in a section entitled "Temple." Following the trial, Fielding had returned to England, married, and was then sent on a tour of central India to inspect government schools. Godbole has become the Minister of Education at Mau, and through his influence, Aziz has become personal physician to the Rajah of Mau.

The opening chapter of this section describes a Hindu ceremony honoring the birth of the god Krishna. Professor Godbole directs the temple choir and, in an ecstasy of religious fervor, dances his joy. While in this almost trancelike state he remembers Mrs. Moore and a wasp, associating them as he contemplates the love of God. The biblical statement "God is Love," with which Mrs. Moore had exhorted her son, is repeated in the Hindu ceremony, although through an error in its printing it becomes "God si Love."

Aziz is annoyed when he discovers that Fielding is visiting Mau in line with his official duties. He has become thoroughly disillusioned with the British and even with Fielding; when he learned that Fielding had married in England, he concluded that the wife was Adela Quested and henceforth refused to read any of Fielding's letters. Aziz has married again and has his children with him. Although he does not embrace Hinduism, he is tolerant of their festivals and is finding peace and contentment away from British domination. He has, however, let his practice of medicine degenerate until he is little more than a glorified medicine man.

When Aziz meets Fielding again, he learns that Stella Moore, not Adela Quested, is Fielding's wife. Stella and her brother Ralph have accompanied Fielding to India. Aziz forms a special attachment for Ralph, whose bee stings he treats, because Ralph shows many of the traits of his mother, Mrs. Moore.

The Hindu festival continues after the celebration of the birth of the god. Fielding and Stella go out in a boat to better observe the ceremony, as do Aziz and Ralph in another boat. In the storm the boats collide with each other and capsize. In the general confusion that follows, the ceremony comes to an end and the English return to the guest house. Aziz has confided to Ralph that the rajah has died, but the announcement of his death is suspended until after the festival.

Hinduism affects both Stella and Ralph, but Fielding cannot understand the effect it has on them, though he is intrigued by it. Aziz believes that Ralph, at least, has an Oriental mind, as Mrs. Moore had.

Although Fielding finds that the school that Professor Godbole was to superintend has been neglected and the building turned into a granary, he does nothing to rectify the situation. The floods, which have kept Fielding in Mau, abate, and he and his party make plans to leave. Before they go, Fielding and Aziz take a final horseback ride together. Good-naturedly, they argue about the Anglo-Indian problem. Aziz excitedly declares that India must be united and the English driven out. Sensing that this is the end of their association, Aziz and Fielding attempt to pledge eternal friendship in spite of their differences, but the path narrows and their horses are forced apart, signifying that such a friendship is not yet possible.

RENAISSANCE ELEMENTS IN BACON'S ESSAYS

RENAISSANCE ELEMENTS IN BACON'S ESSAYS

Renaissance means the revival of learning and an absolute change in every occupation. In its broadest sense, it denotes the gradual enlightenment of human mind after darkness of Middle Ages.

The influence of Renaissance spirit is obvious on Bacon in his essays. He lays emphasis on self-advancement. He has a love for classical learning and natural beauty, which are the qualities of Renaissance.

Bacon's essays bear the pragmatic spirit. He deals with the practical advantages of the things in the new intellectual atmosphere created by the Renaissance. His essays are replete with what is known as worldly wisdom. We see Bacon advising the reader as how to become rich, how to rise his position, how to exercise one's powers. In his essay "Of Truth", he emphasises the value of truth but also points out that the mixture of falsehood is like an alloy in the coin of gold and silver that makes the metal work better. In his essay "Of Riches", he says that the riches are a hindrance to virtue and yet offers suggestion how a man can become rich.

In Bacon's essays, we find the Machiavellian approach to life, to achieve success in life by using fair and foul means. This is an important characteristic of Renaissance age. Therefore, he is the preacher of Machiavellian philosophy.

The Renaissance was the time of exploration and regional conquests. This aspect of Renaissance is reflected in Bacon's political essays. In the essays “Of Empire” and “Of the True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates”, he points out the various dangers that kings in the time faced. He gives useful advice to kings concerning their dealings with their neighbours, their wives, children, their clergy and their nobles, etc. He tells us that the greatness of a country is not by the territory or population but the military power.

The revival of classical learning and the study of ancient Greek and Roman literature and history are obvious in Bacon's essays. There are numerous quotations from ancient writers and through them he supported his arguments.

Bacon's love of learning is portrayed in his essays. This love of learning is an important quality of Renaissance age. In his Essay "Of Studies", he emphasizes the advantages of reading. His essay "Of the True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates" contains thirteen Latin quotations. He says about the love of learning:

"I have taken all the knowledge to be my province.”

Another feature of the Renaissance that is reflected in some of Bacon's essays is his love of beauty and the sensuousness. His essay "Of Garden" shows him as a lover of natural beauty and an ardent love of sensuous beauty. As he says:

"And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air than in the hand."

Another important characteristic of the Renaissance is the striking use of the figure of speech that is clear in Bacon's essays. The metaphors and similes taken from different spheres of knowledge and experience reflect the popular taste of the age. We have a glimpse of his metaphor and similes in the following sentences from his essays:

"A mixture of lie doth ever add pleasure" (Of Truth)

"Men fear death as children fear to go in dark" (Of Death)

As a Renaissance man, Bacon has the sense of curiosity and love for travel. The lists of things that are worth seeing are typical spirit of the Renaissance. It exhibits the tendency to know more and more about every thing and every place. It is said that Bacon has Faustian (like Dr. Faustus) urge of curiosity and love for travel.

Renaissance age was accompanied with the great spirit of humanism. Bacon's essays are proper study of humanism. He directed his gaze inward and became deeply interested in the problems of human personality. All of his essays have "man" as their subject matter.

Bacon's morality governed by the knowledge that man is not perfect and that he can be expected to adhere to ethical standards only to a certain extent.

Bacon has the main feature of Renaissance spirit in his essays but there is one great exception and that is the use of language. He does not reflect the age's pride in English language. He admired and preferred Latin to English and thought that the Latin version of his essays would be more popular. Critics have different opinions about Bacon’s language. A critic says:

"The language of Bacon is as supreme in prose as Shakespeare's in verse."

In the end, we can say that Bacon is a writer who represents the most salient feature of his age, which is the age of revival of learning and study of ancients, the spirit of inquiry and individualism. He is the real product of The Renaissance glory and reveals the thoughts, philosophy and true features of the Renaissance spirit.

Dr Faustus

#DrFaustus, a well respected #German Scholar, grows dissatisfied with the limits of traditional forms of #knowledge #logic #medicine #law and #religion and decides that he wants to learn the #practice magic. His friends #Valdes and #Cornelius instruct him in the black #arts, and he begins his new career as a magician by summoning up #Mephastophilis, a devil. And he enjoys the power with devil #spirits. He is in dilemma with good angel and evil angel but by the time he follows evil and the agreement which plays major role in the drama.

An old man urges Faustus to repent but Faustus shrives him await. They are horror stricken and resolve to pray for him. Despite Mephastophilis ‘s warning about the horrors of hell, Faustus tells the devil to returns to his master #Lucifer, with an offer of Faustus’s soul in exchange for twenty-four years of services from Mephastophilis.  Meanwhile #Wagner, Faustus’s servant has picked up some magical ability and uses it to press a clown names #Robin into his service. On the final night before the expirations of the twenty-four years, Faustus is overcome by fear and remorse. He begs for mercy but it’s too late and after it the scholars find Faustus’s limbs and decide to hold a funeral for him.

#Sin_According_to_Christianity

“All unrighteousness is sin”.

Sin is a transgression (going beyond) of divine law. They are different to crimes that transgress man’s laws. The #Catholic Church had two kinds of sin: #venial and #mortal.
Venial sins were smaller and could be forgiven
But Mortal sins threaten to destroy the life of grace and condemn the sinner to eternal damnation, unless they are absolved through confession. Each sin was punished by an appropriate form of suffering in Hell.

●Seven deadly sins

Instead of showing scene after scene of Faustus engaging with the sins individually, Marlowe takes the abstract concepts of the sins and parades them before the audience. They are intended to demonstrate that within Faustus’s twenty-four years, he would indulge in all of them in his various experiences. They are presented by Lucifer in the same way a medieval morality play would personify broad religious and philosophical concepts. They would have been costumed for comedy.

(1)Pride

(The mother of all sins: believing too much in our own abilities interferes with us recognising the grace of God).

Pride was considered to be the most serious of the sins. It is identified as excessive self-esteem, especially when the proud person does not accept his/her proper position in the Great Chain of Being. Lucifer was thrown from Heaven because he would not accept the Son of God being placed at God’s right hand, which he believed to be his own rightful place. Those guilty of pride were destined to be broken on the wheel in Hell. In the pageant in Doctor Faustus, Pride is too arrogant to accept the position into which he has been born, and he has an inflated sense of his self-worth. In Dr. Faustus PRIDE appears when he feels that he is more superior to others

(2) Covetousness

(The desire for material wealth or gain, ignoring the realm of the spiritual)

Covetousness is a sin of excess, particularly applied to the acquisition of wealth. Those guilty of avarice were destined to be put into cauldrons of boiling oil. In Faustus’s pageant, covetousness is presented as a miser.  In Dr. Faustus COVETOUSNESS appears when he wants to get more and more and it is sign of this sin.

(3) Wrath

(The desire for others’ traits, status, abilities, or situation)

Wrath refers to excessive and uncontrolled feelings of anger that can lead to such offences as assault and murder. In Marlowe’s time, the sin of wrath also encompassed anger turned against oneself, leading to self-harm. Those guilty of wrath were destined to be dismembered alive. In the pageant, Wrath has been angry since birth with no provocation, and he attacks himself when he has no one else to fight. In Dr. Faustus WRATH appears when he is not able to do anything in his life as he was intelligent.

(4) Envy

(When love is overcome by fury)

Envy is characterised by spite and resentment at seeing the success of another. Those who commit the sin of envy resent the fact that another person has something they see themselves as lacking, and may even gloat if another person loses that something. Those guilty of envy were destined to be put into freezing water. In the pageant, Envy is resentful of anyone who has something he does not, and his resentment prevents him from enjoying what he does have. He wishes to pull everyone down to his level. In Dr. Faustus ENVY appears when he saw a power of God.

(5) Gluttony

(An excessive desire to consume more than that which one requires)

Gluttony is the over-consumption of food and drink to the point of waste. Those guilty of gluttony were destined to be forced to eat rats, toads and snakes. In the pageant, Gluttony over-indulges and is resentful of anyone who does not indulge him. In Dr. Faustus GLUTTAONY appears when he wants much more power and position than others.

(6) Sloth

(The avoidance of physical or spiritual work)

Sloth is idleness, the failure to utilise the talents given to you by God. Those guilty of sloth were destined to be thrown into snake pits. In Faustus’s pageant, Sloth resents any attempts to make him do anything at all. In Dr. Faustus SLOTH appears when he got all kind of knowledge and he feels laziness from over knowledge.

(7) Lechery

(An excessive craving for the pleasures of the body)

Lechery, or lust, refers to excessive and unrestrained indulgence in sexual activity. Sexual intercourse was considered to be purely for the purposes of procreation, so any sexual act that was indulged in for enjoyment rather than to produce children was sinful. Those guilty of lechery were destined to be smothered in fire and brimstone (sulphur). Lechery is the only one in the pageant who is obviously female. In Elizabethan times it was thought that the Devil targeted men through women who, like Eve, were ruled by their appetites rather than reason, given to delusional imaginings and far too feeble to resist temptation. In Dr. Faustus LECHERY appears when dancer who came from another world.

Conclusion

These seven sins are the reflection of Dr. Faustus personality. He is a self-centred person who only thinks of him and can do each and everything to fulfil his desires. He is a person imprisoned in his own desires and he put his ego above all. The lesson to be learned from Faustus's story was something along these lines—you know, "curiosity killed the cat" and all that. After all, scholars or not, we're all like Faustus. We all have a weakness, something that we're tempted to act unethically just to possess. So maybe the lesson is a broader one, one that applies to us, too

Stanza Forms in English Literature

Stanza Forms in English Literature
A stanza may be defined as a group of lines of poetry, forming a unit in themselves. Thus the stanza is the unit of organisation in poetry, just as the paragraph is in prose. In many cases the stanzas composing a poem are quite irregular alike in length and structure, as in Wordsworth’s Ode on the Intimations of Immortality and Tennyson’s Maud. But as a rule, a poem is built up of units or sections strictly identical in form. Regular stanzas are commonly defined by the number of their lines and the arrangement of the rimes which bind these lines together. The stanza-forms of English poetry are so numerous and varied that no complete study of them can be attempted here; but the following may be mentioned as some of the best known examples of stanza-forms in English.
1. The Chaucerian Stanza or Rhyme Royal
The Chaucerian stanza is so-called because it was first used in England by Chaucer, “the father of English poetry.” Most probably he borrowed it fromFrance. It is also called Rhyme Royal because it was used by King James I ofScotland in the 15th century for his well-known poem King’s Quair.
The Chaucerian Stanza is a stanza of seven Iambic Pentametre lines. In this stanza the first line rhymes with the third, the second with the fourth and fifth, and the last two lines rhyme together, thus forming a couplet. The rhyme-schme is a a b, a b b, c c. The stanza is particularly suited for narrative verse, and Chaucer used it for several stories in The Canterbury Tales. Shakespeare used it for his The Rape of Lucrece, and in he Victorian Age it was used by William Morris for his The Earthly Paradise. Here is an example of the Chaucerian Stanza:
Then, childish fear, avaunt! debating, die!
Respect and reason, wait on wrinkled age!
My heart shall never countermand mine eye;
Sad pause and deep regard beseem the stage;
My part is youth, and beats these from the stage;
Desire my pilot is, beauty my prize;
Then who fears sinking where such treasure lies?
2. The Ottava Rhyma
This stanza-form was first used in England in the early 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt. He frequently went to Italy on diplomatic missions, and it was from there that he introduced this stanza – form into England. Like the Chaucerian Stanza it is also well suited for narrative purpose. It has also been used for satiric purposes. Shelley used it for his The Witch of Atlas, Keats for his The Pot of Basil, and Byron for his Don Juan.
Ottava Rhyma is a stanza of eight Iambic Pentametre lines. The first line rhymes with the third and fifth, the second with the fourth and sixth, and the last two lines rhyme together, and thus form a couplet. In other words the stanza consists of six lines rhyming alternately with a couplet at the end. The rhyme scheme of the stanza is a b, a b, a b, c c.
Here is an example of Ottava Rhyma from Byron’s Don Juan:
Man’s love is of man’s life a thing apart,
‘Tis woman’s whole existence; man may range
The court, camp, church, the vessel, and the mart;
Sword, gown, gain, glory, offer in exchange
Pride, fame, ambition, to fill up his heart,
And few there are whom these cannot estrange;
Men have, all these resources, we but one,
To love again, and be again undone.
3. Spensarian Stanza
The stanza is so-called because it was first used by the poet Spenser for his romantic epic, “The Fairy Queen”. It is a stanza consisting of eight Iambic Pentametre lines and an Alexandrine or a line of twelve syllables at the end. The first line rhymes with the third; the second, fourth, fifth and seventh lines rhyme together, and the sixth line rhymes with the eighth one and the nineth. The rhyme scheme is a b a b, b c b c, c. It is a very difficult stanza to handle, for in it one rhyme is repeated four times, and another three times. This naturally puts a severe strain on the skill and resources of a poet. He must have full command over language, to find so many words with similar end sounds. Even then the stanza is admirably suited for long narrative and descriptive poems. Spenser used it with great success for his Fairy Queen, and ever since poets have frequently used it with more or less success. In the early 18th century, James Thomson used it for his Castle of Indolence. It was used by Byron for hisChild Harold, by Keats for The Eve of St. Agnes, by Shelley for The Revolt of Islam and Adonais, and by Tennyson for The Lotos-Eaters.
Here is an example of the Spensarian Stanza from Shelley’s Adonais:
Ah woe is me? Winter is come and gone,
But grief returns with the revolving year.
The arts and streams renew their joyous tone;
The ants, the bees, the swallows, reappear;
Fresh leaves and flowers deck the dead Season’s bier
The amorous birds now pair in every brake,
And build their mossy homes in field and brere;
And the green lizard and the golden snake,
Like un imprisoned flames, out of their trance awake,
4. The Terza Rhyma
The Terza Rhyma is an Italian verse-form, and it was first used with great success by the Italian poet Dante for his monumental epic, The Divine Comedy. In England it was used with considerable success by Shelley for hisOde to the West Wind. Byron’s Prophecy of Dante, Browning’s The Statute and the Bust, and William Morris’ The Defence of Guenevere are also written in this stanza.
The Terza Rhyma is simply a group of three lines forming a unit. In this stanza first line rhymes with the third, and the second line rhymes with the first and third of the following tercet (group of three lines). In this way each tercet is linked up with the next, the first with the second, the second with the third, and so on. A tercet may be run on or closed. In a run on tercet the sense overflows or runs on from one tercet to another. On the other hand in the closed variety, each tercet forms a complete sentence. Both these types have been used in England, but the run on variety has been generally favoured.
The rhyme-scheme of any two tercets would be a b a, b c b, and so on for the following tercets.
Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind provides typical examples of Terza Rhyma:
O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being,
Thou, from whose unseen presense the leaves dead
Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,
Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,
Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou,
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed
The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low,
Each like a corpse within its grave, until
Thine azure sister of the spring shall blow
Her clarion o’er the dreaming earth, and fill
(Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air)
with living hues and odours plain and hill.
5. The Quatrain
A Quatrain is a stanza of four Iambic lines with alternate rhymes i.e. the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the fourth. However, variations of this rhyme-scheme are frequent. Similarly, the length of the lines also varies. The lines may be Pentametre, Tetrametre, or even shorter. Sometimes, the first and third lines are longer than the second and fourth lines. Most of the ballads in the English language have been written in Quatrains, so it is also referred to as the Ballad-stanza. Coleridge’s The Ancient Mariner andKeats’ La Belle Dame Sans Merci are the two poems in this form which readily come to one’s mind.
Here is an example of a Quatrain from The Ancient Mariner:
The sun came up upon the left,
Out of the sea came he !
And he shone bright, and on the right
Went down into the sea.
6. The Heroic Couplet
The Heroic Couplet consists of two Iambic Pentametre lines rhyming together. It is called ‘Heroic’ because Iambic Pentametre verse rhymed or unrhymed, was first used for epic or heroic poetry. It is an important measure as far as English poetry is concerned. Most of the poetry of the Augustan Age (the age of Dryden and Pope 1660 – 1750) is cast in this measure.
Each line of the heroic couplet consists of five feet or ten syllables, and the second syllable of each foot is accented. The two lines of the couplet rhyme, and the rhyme may be single or double, though Pope, the ablest practitioner of the verse-form, generally uses single rhymes. In the middle there is a pause, technically called the ‘Caesura’. This pause generally falls after the fourth and before the sixth syllable. But variations in the placing of the pause may be skillfully introduced in keeping with the requirements of thought and emotion. Further, there may be variations not only in the placing of the Caesura but also in its depth. Sometimes, this pause is so slight that it seems there is no pause at all.
The chief characteristics of the heroic couplet are well-illustrated by the following one:
Grove nods at grove, each alley has a brother,
And half the platform, just reflects the other.
Each line of the couplet has five feet and the second syllable in each foot is accented. The position of pause is indicated by the comma. The last syllable of ‘brother’ rhymes with the last syllable of ‘other’.
The heroic couplet may be of two kinds – closed or run on. In the closed couplet the sense is competed with each couplet and each thus forms a complete sentence, a unit in itself. The couplet cited above is of a closed variety. In the run-on variety, the sense runs on from one couplet to another till it is completed. In this case, the individual couplet does not form a unit, but the unit is formed by a group of couplets which complete the sense, and this larger unit is called the verse-paragraph.
The Heroic Couplet was first used in England by Chaucer who might have learned it from French sources. He used this measure for may of the stories in the Canterbury Tales. Spenser used it with great skill for his Mother Hubbard’s Tale, Marlowe too used it with great success for his Hero and Leander.
However, it was in the Augustan age that the Heroic Couplet came to its own. At the very beginning of the era poets Waller and Denham showed great skill in its use. “The excellence and dignity of rhyme,” says Dryden, “were never fully known till Mr. Waller taught it: he first made writing easily an art; first showed us to conclude the sense, most commonly in a distich.” Pope pays a tribute to both:
And praise the vigor of a line,
Where Denham’s strength and Waller’s sweetness join;
However, it was with Pope and Dryden that the couplet entered on its most glorious phase. Both of them used it as the instrument of their satire. It has been said that each of their couplets stings and the sting is located in the tail. Dryden used it for his Absalom and Achitophel and Macflecknoe, and Pope for his Rape of the Lock and Dunciad. He also used it for such narrative and philosophical works as Essay on Man and Essay on Criticism. Their use of the couplet is characterised by ease, vigour, strength and sweetness. Dryden’s use of it is more flexible, and variety is introduced in various ways. Often he uses run-on Couplets. Pope’s use of it is rigid. His couplets are generally of the closed variety. In his hands, the couplet reached perfection; no couplet of his can be improved upon.
Pope was widely imitated throughout the 18th century. But his followers did not have his genius and his ability and in their hands the couplet degenerated into a mere mechanical art and became monotonous. With the coming of the romantics there was a re-action against it. The romantics turned away from the couplet to other measures. However, the use of the couplet was not entirely discarded. Byron, Shelley and Keats all used it along with other verse-forms. Moreover, they used the run-on (or enjambed) variety of the couplet and not the closed one as was the case with Dryden and Pope. Keats’ Lamia is written in run-on couplets. A generation later, in the Victorian era, the couplet was used first by Browning and then by William Morris and Swinburne. The couplet continues to be used, specially for narrative poetry, but it is no longer the exclusive verse-form of English poetry, as it was in the Augustan Age. It has been considerably loosened, and hardly resembles the couplets of Pope andDryden.
7. Octosyllabic Couplet
In the end, mention may also be made of the Octosyllabic Couplet. It differs from the Heroic Couplet, in as much as each line in it consists of eight syllables or four feet and not of ten syllables or five feet. It is a difficult measure to handle, and its use in long narrative poems tends to grow mechanical and tiresome. However, in the Restoration era (1660 – 1700) Samuel Butler used it with great success for his satirical poem Sir Hudibras. In the romantic age, Coleridge used it successfully for his Christabel.
8. Satire
The word satire is derived from the Latin “Satura Lanks”. Long defines it as, ‘a literary work which searches out the faults of men or institutions in order to hold them upto ridicule.” According to Dryden, “the true end of satire is the amendment of vices by correction”. But the best definition seems to be that given by Richard Garnett, who defines satire as,
“The expression in adequate terms of the sense of amusement or disgust excited by the ridiculous or unseemly, provided that humour is a distinctly recognised element, and that the utterance is invested with literary form. Without humour satire is invective; without literary form, it is mere clownish jeering.”
Thus the main characteristics of satire are:
(a) Literary form of expression.
(b) Disgust at the ridiculous, the ugly, and the foolish.
(c) Humour.
(d) A sincere desire to correct or reform.
A good satirist is a critic whose aim is to reform or correct human weaknesses, vices or follies, and the weapon which he uses for his purposes is that of laughter. His aim is to laugh folly out of contenance, or to scorn it into shame. He rarely attacks directly, but clothes his attack in allegory, fable, mock-heroic, parody of burlesque. Concentration and brevity intensify the effect, so verse is a better medium for satire than prose, though there have been good satirists in prose also. The example of Swift readily comes to mind as one of the best English satirists using the medium of prose.
Satire may be of two kinds (a) Personal, and (b) Impersonal. Personal satire is aimed at some individual. It, too, can be effective in the hands of a master, but generally it has a tendency to degenerate into vituperation and personal invectives. It is also ephemeral and short-lived. In impersonal or genuine satire, the satirist passes from the individual to the type, from the ephemeral to the eternal and universal. Types are among the finest achievements of impersonal satire. It has a wider sweep, individuals are used as examples of the vices and follies that infect the age.
Satire is as old as literature itself; but the Romans were the first great satirists. Persius, Horace and Juvenal were the great Roman satirists who laid down the lines for the future development of this channel of literature. The satire of Horace laughs at mankind; that of Persius indignantly lashes at mankind; while Juvenal hates and despises mankind. The satire of Pope is generally Horatian in tone, though occasionally it becomes bitter, caustic and venomous like that of Juvenal. Church and woman were the usual targets of satire in the middle ages. Langland lashes at the corrupt clergy of the times, and Chaucer, too, has his fling at them and at women. In the Elizabethan era the Puritan, the affected traveller and women were the common object of satire. The Age of Milton witnessed the rise of political satire. Samuel Bulter satirises the false chivalry of the age in Hudibras, which is the best piece in this genre before Dryden. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, we find Dryden, Swift and Pope satirising their personal and political enemies, though when at their best, they rise from the personal to the impersonal. Politics and literary rivalry are all transformed by them into genuine satire and we get a general view of the follies and vices of the period.
Swift’s best satire is Gulliver’s Travels which is, on its face, a book of travels to strange lands of pygmies, giants, and horses. Swift’s purpose was to expose the vices and follies of mankind by ridiculing them. Man is reduced to the shortness of the Lilliputians or magnified into the gross Brobdingnagians, or contrasted with the equine virtues of the Houyhnhnms. The effectiveness of such a satire depends on the invention with which the irony makes evident the likeness between the real world and the imaginary. So successful was Swift’s invention that ever since the book was published, children have read the voyages to Lilliput and Brobdingang as fairy stories, without worrying about the satire. So effective is the irony that Gulliver’s Travels remains one of the most appaling exposures of human weakness.
Among the novelists, Fielding and Smolett rank very high as satirists. Fielding’s novels present a picture of contemporary society, and its many follies, foibles, weaknesses and vices are expressed and ridiculed. His aim was always reformative and it was after his Amelia that many reforms in the administration of jails and the administration of justice could be pulled through. Tobias Smollet satirises mankind in general, and again and again in his novels man is reduced to the level of insects.
Satire in the 19th century: In the 18th century, satire both in verse and prose reached its zenith. But in the 19th century also we find a number of vigorous satirists. Among the romantics, Lord Gordon Byron excelled in satire. He began as a satirist and ended as a satirist. The major poetic production of his early period was English bards and Scotch Reviewers and the last work Don Juan was an epic satire on society. In these two satires Byron, to quote Oliver Elton, “is a young tiger-cub lashing out with sharp and clumsy claws’ In 1822, Byron came out with another vigours satire. The Vision of Judgment. The satire is directed against George III and is a repudiation of the high praise lavished on him by Southey. The king is represented as base and mean, for he creeps into heaven like a sneaking coward.
Don Juan is an epic satire, and is undoubtedly Byron’s best work. Its panoramic survey of human society of Europe, with all the foibles and weaknesses of social institutions, is truly staggering in its satirical wit. Charges of insincerity and hypocrisy are brought against Byron and his attack on virtue has called upon him the wrath of the moralists. But Byron defended himself against these charges in the following words:
“I was willing to plead guilty of having sometimes represented vice under alluring colours but it was so generally in the world and, therefore, it was necessary to point it so.”
Among the Victorians, Dickens and Thackeray are two vigorous satirists who survey the society of their times and expose and ridicule its many weaknesses, its hypocrisy, its materialism, its greed, social climbing, snobbery, etc. Dickens’ novels are novels of social reform and he uses the weapon of satire to bring about reform in a number of social institutions – schools, prison administration, and administration of justice, etc. His satire is mild and gentle, pure humour being more characteristic of him. Carlyle and Ruskin were also fired with the Zeal of social reform, and we find them attacking vigorously a number of social institutions of the day. They were clear-headed thinkers fully alive to the prevalent social evils, and they use the weapon of irony to effect their purpose. However, they can also be fierce and direct in their denunciation of the existing social system. Matthew Arnold, too, was a bitter critic of the society of his day, and philistinism of the age, the vulgarisation of cultural values, comes frequently within his lash.
Satire in the Modern Age: Satire continue unabatted in the 20th century. It is an age of interrogation, and the cherished ideals and beliefs, and cherished social institutions, are subjected to severe scrutiny. George Bernard Shaw is a vigorous satirist who in his plays holds up to the test of reason the most valued ideals and institutions. Nothing escapes his searching eye; every folly, weakness or vice comes within the lash of his satire. Samuel Butler is another great satirist who in his The Way of All Flash and Erewhon has satirically exposed and ridiculed the shortcomings of the times. Estimating his greatness as a satirist of the later nineteenth century; but not in the first rank of satirist Hugh Walker writes “Butler stands clearly at the head of the satire of the later nineteenth century; but not in the first rank of satirists, and still less in the first rank of literature. Swift, with whom his affinities are most obvious, is far superior in breadth of range, in force of thought, and in keenness of wit. On the other hand, Butler is much more humane: but this unfortunately is an advantage which diminished with time. The Way of All Flesh is far less pleasant and humane than Erewhon.” Mention may also be made of Aldous Huxley who, in his successive novels, has ridiculed contemporary science and the tall claims that are made on its behalf.
Satire may change its form, it may be more vigorous in some ages than in others, but it will continue as long as mankind continues to be imperfect.

Othello, the Moor of Venice as a Tragedy

Othello, the Moor of Venice as a Tragedy
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Summary
William Shakespeare’s play Othello, the Moor of Venice concerns the downfall of Othello who was a Moorish General and can be considered a tragedy. The main character who is the hero in the drama faces trouble at the end of the play when he kills his wife suspecting her of being unfaithful. The play is full of suspense and contains the theme of jealousy, intrigue, suspense, and murder creating a great tragedy as per Aristotle's order. According to Aristotle, three main things constitute a tragic drama such as hamartia, which is the tragic flaw in the character that faces the downfall. The other one is catharsis in which the emotions of the audience change in a manner that makes them learn a lesson from the drama. The third ingredient is anagnorisis, which involves the revelation of some facts that were never realized before to the character considered as the hero. Othello is a tragic hero since he fulfills all the three requirements offered by Aristotle since he is initially a person possessing noble status but later falls to a shameful one. This happens because he has the quality of hamartia leading him to suffer shame at the end of the drama. Again, Othello’s plot has catharsis experience at the climax of the drama as the play ends. The anagnorisis is experienced when Othello comes to realize the evil in Iago and that his wife is innocent. He is very powerful at first, and no one thinks that his life can end tragically, as it happens during the conclusion. Therefore, it is right to argue that Othello is a tragic drama considering the changing life of the main character from a highly regarded man to a shameful one.

Outline
Introduction
The play Othello, the Moor of Venice is a tragedy with Othello as the tragic hero.
A tragic hero must be a man of high status and later face downfall.
Othello, the Moor fits the definition of Aristotle’s tragic hero.
He is highly respected by the senators of Venice State and the citizens
He has heroic qualities such as courage, dignity, religious ties, sound judgment, and practice of self-control
His downfall is caused by his flaws
Another distinct quality of a tragic hero according to Aristotle is that the cause of the downfall must result from flaws of his character
Othello’s jealousy is one of his weaknesses
Othello kills his wife, but the audience still has pity on Othello after he realizes his wife is innocent
The play does not end in a happy mood
Another important element of tragedy Othello is the revelation of facts related to the tragic hero or anagnorisis.
Othello discovers that Iago lied to him of Desdemona’s unfaithful.
The audience is aware of Desdemona's innocence yet her husband is not.
Conclusion
The features of tragic dramas include hamartia, catharsis, and anagnorisis.
Othello is the tragic hero since the play satisfies all the qualifications for tragedy as defined by Aristotle.
“Othello, the Moor of Venice" can be considered as a Shakespeare's tragedy in which Othello serves as the tragic hero according to Aristotle. A tragic hero according to the Greek Philosopher, Aristotle, must be a person occupying a prestigious estate, Prince, or nobleman, possess a tragic flaw besides having some judgmental skills, and falls from a high state to a low one (Dewar‐Watson 12). By using the criteria suggested by Aristotle, it is possible to determine whether Othello, the Moor acts as a tragic hero or not. Othello is a tragic hero since he is a respected man at the begging enjoying power and honor but later faces downfall when he murders his wife suspecting her of being unfaithful.

Othello who is a Moor completely fits the definition given by Aristotle of a tragic hero. For one to qualify he must possess qualities such as being a person of a high state, face downfall and become unhappy, and his downfall must be contributed by his tragic flaws (Kennedy & Gioia, 856).  In the play, Othello is a Moor from Africa of noble birth who serves at the highest rank in the military as the Cyprus Governor-General. He commands nobility, is confident, and very strong besides being highly respected by people of the Venice State. For instance, the treatment he gets from the senators is special such as the time when he enters a room where leaders are discussing the state matters. In fact, one member of the sitting senators exclaims, “here comes the Barantio and the Valiant Moor (Shakespeare and Opzoomer Act 1 Scene 3). This statement shows that he receives a lot of respect from other leaders and thus can be considered a tragic hero. In addition, his demonstration of confident reaction especially when Barbantio accuses him of engaging in witchcraft activities is proof that he is the hero of the land as defined by Aristotle. Again, he is a man with an African stature that commands respect from the people and senators of Venice since he is described as tall and dark. For instance, in Shakespeare and Opzoomer Act 1 scene 2, the governor of Cyprus named Montano awaits for Othello's ship to arrive after an intense storm in the Sea. He calls him brave Othello a character that commands complete respect and honor from leaders and citizens of the state (38). Othello is a man that commands high honor from everybody including soldiers and his people that call him "captain" a word that refers to a commander or a soldier of troops. He possesses a lot of knowledge and skills since he started his military career at a young age of seven years. By the time he is a grown up man he is very experienced and capable of leading the troops to any battle. This one quality makes him feel great and enjoy privileges although they do not last long due to his weakness of reacting with rage.  The other characteristics that earn him high honor include courage, dignity, religious ties, sound judgment, and practice of self-control according to the play (Bradley 66).  However, towards the play end Othello loses his self-control qualities when he commits a terrible murder crime that irritates everybody. He enjoys some power and happiness especially when the play begins but later falls to become a murderer hated by people.

Another distinct quality of a tragic hero according to Aristotle is that the cause of the downfall must result from flaws of his character and his way of making judgment leading to failure. Othello’s jealousy is one of his weaknesses besides believing the lies told by villain Iago that Desdemona is unfaithful to him. He cannot imagine that his wife can love another man and becomes extremely angry such that he cannot control his actions leading to violence. Othello should investigate the accusation concerning the accused but believes all the lies and murders Desdemona and later himself. His behavior that seems quite impulsive makes him react violently instead of trying to find out whether the stories told about his wife are true or not. Iago is aware of the moor's weaknesses and uses them to cause his downfall as he states "The Moor is of a free and open nature… And will as tenderly be led by the nose / As asses are" (Shakespeare and Opzoomer 1.3. 379). It is therefore; right to argue that Othello fits well in the description of a tragic hero by Aristotle since his downfall results from his hamartia or tragic flaws. In addition, an actual tragedy according to Aristotle contains a purgation, which can leave the audience with a feeling of justification and uplift at the end. However, the purgation does not need to be positive as Kenedy and Gioia (857) ague. For instance, in Othello's case, the audience may not feel happy and excited with the play's ending since almost all the main characters die. However, they may feel justified by the punishment in the villain thus the play transforms the emotions of the audience at it ends. According to Aristotle, a play must have the capability to arouse the audience feelings of fear and pity and later give them a conclusion, which satisfies them. In Othello, the audience pities Othello, Iago, and Desdemona but still feels fear for the couple that was enjoying a happy marriage before the conflicts set in. The worst fears come when Othello kills his wife, but the audience still has pity on Othello after he realizes his wife is innocent, stabs himself, and dies. The play does not end in a happy mood, but the punishment of Iago gives it a dramatic closure. One primary purpose of a tragedy is dramatizing the weaknesses, failure, and the despair of human beings and how they can improve their character through character analysis. Shakespeare has accomplished all the requirement of a tragic hero to bring a feeling of pity and fear to the audience.

Another important element of tragedy according to Aristotle found in Othello is the revelation of facts related to the tragic hero referred to as anagnorisis. This may include the transformation of individuals from ignorance to knowing which may create friends or enemies (MacFarlane 367). There some things that the audience is aware of but the characters such as Othello do not know until at the end of the drama. Anagnorisis is realized towards the play end when Othello discovers that Iago made a trap and lied to him that Desdemona is unfaithful. However, it is already too late since he has committed an irreversible act of killing his wife. When he realizes that he acted with haste and that Desdemona is innocent, he commits suicide and the play ends in a sad mood. It is unbelievable that such a respectable and powerful man can behave in a manner that irritates everyone in the state. The wife of Iago, Emilia cries in bitterness exclaiming Desdemona’s innocence after the Moor kills his wife “Moor she was chaste…” (Shakespeare and Opzoomer 5.2.258). At this moment, Othello realizes Iago’s lies and cries before ending his life since he cannot forgive himself for the crime he has committed. Revealing the identity of characters, which were unknown, is also an important element of anagnorisis as defined by Aristotle. The tragic hero in Othello experiences this at the end of the play by knowing the real character of his wife and Iago, but it is too late. When the revelation is made, Shakespeare's drama climaxes as Othello faces the reality of the crime he has committed due to his hasty decisions. The audience has a climactic moment as it discovers the truth as Herzel put it that "a special kind of double vision comes into play" (498). The audience witnesses actions that have terrible effects although the agent is not aware of it. The audience is aware of Desdemona's innocence yet her husband, Othello is not. In this case, Othello's anagnorisis as the play ends is quite poignant.

According to Aristotle, there are three features of tragic dramas, which include hamartia, catharsis, and anagnorisis. All these have been depicted fully in Shakespeare's play that highlights the rise and downfall of Othello. Deceit and jealousy contribute to his tragic failure, the death of the couple, and Iago's punishment. Othello is a tragic drama and the main character, Othello is the tragic hero since the play satisfies all the qualifications for tragedy as defined by Aristotle. The main themes portrayed include intrigue, jealousy, faithfulness, remorse, death, and betrayal. The drama teaches the audience to be careful when handling difficult situations especially after receiving devastating news. If Othello investigated the issue regarding Desmodemona he could have discovered that Iago was lying. The death of his wife becomes his final blow and he realizes that he is no longer the powerful and respected man. At this point, he is very weak and cannot control his actions and his life ends tragically. Considering all the happenings in the play especially to its main character, Othello, the moor of Venice qualifies to be a tragic drama.

Milton's Grand Style

Milton's Grand Style
 

Introduction

In modern times, Milton's style first received general criticism from T. S. Eliot. Eliot praised Milton in "A Note on the Verse of John Milton" (Martz 12-18): "[W]hat he could do well he did better than anyone else has ever done." Then Eliot added, "Milton's poetry could only be an influence for the worse, upon any poet whatever." The general thrust of Eliot's criticism is that Milton's purposely adopted grand style is both so difficult to accomplish and so complicated (in places) to understand that it causes a deterioration in the poetic style of those who are influenced by it and cannot meet its demands. "In fact," said Eliot, "it was an influence against which we still have to struggle."

Eliot's prime example is from Book V as Satan addresses his followers concerning the Son:

Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers,
If these magnific Titles yet remain
Not merely titular, since by Decree
Another now hath to himself ingross't
All Power, and us eclipst under the name
Of King anointed, for whom all this haste
Of midnight march, and hurried meeting here,
This only to consult how we may best
With what may be devis'd of honors new
Receive him coming to receive from us
Knee-tribute yet unpaid, prostration vile,
Too much to one, but double how endur'd,
To one and to his image now proclaim'd? (V, 772-784).

That Satan's point here is obscured by the language cannot be denied. Most readers are probably unaware that a question is being asked until they see the question mark at the end of the passage. The meaning here can be puzzled out, but it is difficult to call such writing good, let alone great. Many readers, from put-upon high schoolers to experienced scholars took Eliot's criticism to heart. Often, they overlooked the fact that Eliot did not suggest that Milton was a bad poet; rather he suggested that the grand style could lead to bad poetry, particularly by the many who used Milton's style as the paradigm of great English poetry.

Defenders of Milton quickly appeared to answer Eliot. C. S. Lewis, in his work A Preface to Paradise Lost, and Christopher Ricks in Milton's Grand Style both mounted vigorous defenses of Milton's style. Lewis in particular argued that Milton needed this particular style for a "secondary epic," his term for an epic meant to be read rather than the "primary epic," which was presented orally in a formal setting and meant to be heard. Lewis' basic point was that the grand style provided the formality of setting that the secondary epic, by the nature of its composition, lost.

Both Lewis and Ricks offered numerous counter examples to show that Milton's style was sublime. Certainly, aside from Shakespeare, no other writer in English could manipulate the language as Milton did. His justly famous description of Mulciber falling soars:

     from Morn
To Noon he fell, from Noon to dewy Eve,
A Summer's day; and with the setting Sun
Dropt from the Zenith like a falling Star (I, 742-745).

Or consider the pathos, poignancy, and hopefulness that fill the last few lines of the epic:

Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon;
The world was all before them, where to choose
Their place of rest, and Providence their guide.
They hand in hand, with wand'ring steps and slow,
Through Eden took their solitary way. (XII, 645-650)

However, the questions about Milton's style cannot be answered by playing a game of bad line versus good line. The answer to the question posed by Eliot and opposed by Lewis and Ricks is of such a subjective nature that it can never be truly settled. Arguments about Milton's style will persist just as they do about the styles of Henry James, Jane Austen, even James Joyce. One man's sublimity is another's conundrum.

What can be accomplished is a clear description regarding what Milton's grand style consists of and how he made use of it in the poem. With this information, the reader can at least have an objective foundation on which to base his subjective opinion.

Allusions and Vocabulary

The first aspect of the grand style that most readers notice is the number of allusions and references, many of which seem obscure, along with the arcane and archaic vocabulary. In just the first few lines of the poem references to "Oreb" (7), "That Shepherd" (8), "chosen seed" (8), "Siloa's Brook" (10), and "Aonian Mount" (15) occur. The purpose of the references is to extend the reader's understanding through comparison. Most readers will know some of the references, but few will know all. The question thus arises whether Milton achieves his effect or its opposite. Further, words such as "Adamantine" (48), "durst" (49), "Compeer" (127), "Sovran" (246) and many others, both more and less familiar, add an imposing tone to the work. Paradise Lost was not written for an uneducated audience, but in many editions the explanatory notes are almost as long as the text.

Sentence Construction

Besides the references and vocabulary, Milton also tends to use Latinate constructions. English is a syntactical language using word order in sentences to produce sense. Latin, in contrast, is an inflected language in which endings on words indicate the words' functions within a sentence, thereby making word order less important. Latin verbs, for example, often come at the end of the sentence or a direct object may precede the subject. In Paradise Lost, Milton seems purposely to strive for atypical English syntactical patterns. He almost never writes in simple sentences. Partly, this type of inverted, at times convoluted, syntax is necessary for the poetics, to maintain the correct meter, but at other times the odd syntax itself seems to be Milton's stylistic goal.

In this passage from Book VIII, the exact meaning of the words is elusive because of the Latinate syntax:

     soft oppression seis'd
My droused sense, untroubl'd though I thought
I then was passing to my former state
Insensible, and forthwith to dissolve (VIII, 291-296).

Lewis, and others who admire the grand style, argue that in passages such as this, the precise meaning matters less than the impressionistic effect, that the images of drowsing, insensibility, and dissolution occurring in order show the breakdown of a conscious mind, in this case Adam's, as God produces a dream vision for him. Certainly this passage, as difficult to understand literally as it is, is not bad writing. The reader understands what Adam is experiencing. However, in the hands of lesser talents than Milton, such writing becomes nonsense.

Extended Similes

Another aspect of Milton's style is the extended simile. The use of epic similes goes back to Homer in the Iliad and Odyssey, but Milton uses more similes and with more detail. A Miltonic simile can easily become the subject of an essay, perhaps a book. Milton's similes run a gamut from those that seem forced (the comparison of Satan's arrival in Eden to the smell of fish [IV, 166]) to those that are perfect (Eden compared to the field where Proserpine gathered flowers [(IV, 268]). But, in all cases, a critical exploration of the simile reveals depths of unexpected meaning about the objects or persons being compared. Once again, Milton achieves a purpose with his highly involved language and similes. The ability to do this seems almost unique to Milton, a man of immense learning and great poetic ability.

Repeated Images

Besides extended similes, Milton also traces a number of images throughout the poem. One of the most apparent is the image of the maze or labyrinth. Over and over in the poem, there are mentions of mazes — like the tangled curls of Eve's hair — which finally culminate with the serpent confronting Eve on a "Circular base of rising folds, that tow'r'd / Fold above fold a surging maze" (IX, 498-499). Other images also run throughout the poem as a kind of tour de force of imagination and organization. Each image opens up new possibilities for understanding Milton's ideas.

No doubt, particular aspects of Milton's style could be presented at great length, but these are sufficient. Milton intended to write in "a grand style." That style took the form of numerous references and allusions, complex vocabulary, complicated grammatical constructions, and extended similes and images. In consciously doing these things, Milton devised a means of giving the written epic the bardic grandeur of the original recited epic. In so doing, he created an artificial style that very few writers could hope to emulate though many tried. As with the unique styles of William Faulkner and James Joyce, Milton's style is inimitable, and those who try to copy it sometimes give the original a bad name.

Milton's style is certainly his own. Elements of it can be criticized, but in terms of his accomplishment in Paradise Lost, it is difficult to see how such a work could be better written in some other style. Milton defined the style of the English epic and, in a real sense, with that style, ended the genre. After Milton and Paradise Lost, the English epic ends.