Results 2021 annual overseas Pakistani Punjab university

Morphology

Morphology

Morphology is the branch of linguistics (and one of the major components of grammar) that studies word structures, especially regarding morphemes, which are the smallest units of language. They can be base words or components that form words. 

A systematic study of morphemes or how morphemes join to form words is known as morphology.

According to Bloomfield, it is the study of the constructions in which sound forms appear among the constituents.  Dorfman defines morphology as the study of the ways and methods of grouping sounds into sound-complexes or words.

Morphology is a level of structure between the phonological and the syntactic. It is complementary to syntax. Morphology is the grammar of words; syntax is the grammar of sentences. One accounts for the internal structure or form of words; the other describes how these words are put together in sentences.

Some Basic Concepts of Morphology

Morpheme

In the English language, a morpheme is the smallest unit that is meaningful. For example, the ‘s’ in the end of the word ‘cats’, is a morpheme. The ‘s’ won’t have any meaning if it is separated from the actual word. That is the difference between a word and a morpheme. A word has its own meaning, but a morpheme cannot have a meaning if it is not associated with a word.

The English word unkind is made up of two smaller units: un and kind. These are minimal units that cannot be further sub-divided into meaningful units. Such minimal, meaningful units of grammatical description are generally referred to as morphemes. A morpheme meets three criteria:

1.       It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning.

2.       It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders.

3.       It recurs in differing verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.

The word unlikely has 3 morphemes while the word carpet is a single morpheme. The words car and pet are independent morphemes in themselves. The word carpet has nothing to do with the meaning of car and pet. Carpet is a minimal meaningful unit by itself. Again, the word garbage is a single morpheme while the words garb and age are independent morphemes by themselves. 

Morpheme is, therefore, the minimal unit of grammatical structure, possessing a distinctive phonemic form, having a grammatical function and may differ in its phonological manifestations. 

Morph :

The term ‘morph’ means shape. Any minimal phonetic form that has meaning is a morph. 

 A morph is simply the phonetic representation of a morpheme, how the morpheme is said.

Thus bus , in books,  book ,  are two morphs. 

The concept of morph recognises that a morpheme has a phonetic shape. This phonetic representation is called its morph. The word writer has two morphemes, write and -er. These are realizable in the phonetic shapes as /rait/ and/-∂:/. These are two morphs of the morpheme (or word in this case).

ALLOMORPH-

Allomorphs are the variants of the same morpheme. They are said to be the different realizations of one morpheme. . 

For example- the plural marker /-s/ has three allomorphs /-s, -z, -iz / which occur in three different environments such as-

cats, dogs and buses

 Similarly, the past tense morpheme can appear as /-d/, /-t/, /-id/, and /-q/. Each of these morphs belongs to the same morpheme. These are called allomorphs.

The relationship between the terms morph, allomorph and morpheme is similar to that between phone, allophone and phoneme. Those morphs which belong to the same morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme. Thus /s/, /z/ and /Iz/ are allomorphs of the plural morpheme {e(s)}.

Allomorphs of a morpheme may change their phonemic shapes due to  morphological conditioning.

Morphological Conditioning

The regularity of phonological conditioning is restricted. There are several irregular forms that don’t show the predictable direction of morphophonemic changes. We can always explain reasonably why such variant forms as the /t/~/d/~/id/ occur for past tense and /s/~/z/~/iz/ for plural morpheme.

But such explanation is not possible in the case of the plural form of child – children, and sheep – sheep. These forms are not phonologically conditioned, i.e. the proximity of a sound doesn’t affect these forms. en is peculiar to children, oxen and brethren. Such changes are said to be due to morphological conditioning.

We shall consider below some major types of morphological conditioning.

Zero Suffix

A zero morph is a morph, consisting of no phonetic form, that is proposed in some analyses as an allomorph of a morpheme that is ordinarily realized by a morph having some phonetic form. Examples: The plural form that is realized in two sheep is Ø, in contrast with the plural -s in two goats.

Certain words in English do not show any change of form when inflected either for pluralizing or making into past tense form. 

These singular – plural and present and past tense forms are alike.

Set A          (Singular)                    Set B (Plural)

                  Sheep                           sheep

                  deer                             deer

                  

Set A          (Present Tense)            Set B (Past Tense)

                  cut                                cut

                  put                               put

               

But we know that set A words are in present tense and that set B words are in the past tense. With this understanding we use the words.

There is a sheep

There are sheep

He cuts

He has cut

We can say that a zero suffix of plural and a zero suffix of the past tense has been added to these forms. 

 

Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes

There are Two types of morphemes in English 

: free form and bound form. 

A morpheme that occurs alone, or can stand alone is a free form. It does not require the presence of another morpheme; in other words, such a morpheme doesn’t need the support of any other element. All content words are free forms : house, church, girl, cat, walk, see, red, short, book, water. Some form words are also free forms, always, though, but, never, and, or, if. The meaning of such words is ‘contained in their ability to refer to some point in the world outside’.

A second class of morphemes called bound form, contain elements that must always be attached to some other elements. They cannot occur or stand alone. In words like watery, invisible, reader, possibility, madness, cats, and manly. We can identify such morphemic particles as -y, in, -He, – cr, -ty, -ness, -s, and -ly. Their meaning is in their grammatical functions such as noun-making, verb-forming, pluralizing, adjectivising, and so on. They can be attached to any other free forms of the same form class to construct similar segments. Isolated they don’t stand by themselves.

affix, a grammatical element that is combined with a word, stem, or phrase to produce derived or inflected forms. There are three main types of affixes: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. A prefix occurs at the beginning of a word or stem (sub-mit, pre-determine, un-willing); a suffix at the end (wonder-ful, depend-ent, act-ion); and an infix occurs in the middle. English has no infixes,

A prefix precedes a free form, a stem or a root. We see these in the following words : uncommon, decentralise, disappoint, recycle. Un-, de-, dis-, re- are all prefixes. There are many other prefixes. All these are word-formative elements.

A suffix is also a word-formative clement – it follows a free form. Examples are sleeveless, temptation, government, activate, darkness, reader.

By adding a suffix we can either negativise a word, i.e. hat less, merciless, or change its form class; dark is an adjective, by adding -ness we can change it into noun.

Inflection and Derivation

Affixes are classified on the basis of their function into two categories

First, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category (part of speech) of a word. derivational morphemes often change the part of speech of a word. Thus, the verb read becomes the noun reader when we add the derivational morpheme -er. It is simply that read is a verb, but reader is a noun.

 – derivation and inflection. Affixes that cannot take another affix is generally identified as inflectional affixes. If we add -s or -ed to present we will get derivative words presents and presented

We cannot add another suffix to it. Inflectional suffixes of this type may create a set of forms of a morpheme within the same form class. Such words are said to be ‘inflected’. We can in this way pluralise a noun, speeches, judges and tops, etc.

These words are said to be inflected for pluralising.  Generally, in English, inflectional affixes are suffixes. They define a part of speech, but donot change it – ugly, uglier, ugliest – all the three forms belong to the adjective form class.

Both prefixes and suffixes can be derivational. The form-class of the morphemes may be changed by additing a derivational affix. Globe (N) may become global (Adj), globalize (vb), globalization (N); and so also child (N), childish (Adj), childishly (Adv), childishness (N). Each time a derivational affix is added in the above examples, we see the form-class changing.

Another function is that they maintain the form-class, that is, the grammatical category is not changed, as is seen below :

If we add the prefix un-to certain (Adj.), we donot find the prefix changing the root to another form-class. Uncertain remains as much an adjective as certain is. Similarly, possess (vb) can take a negativising prefix dis- to make an antonym dispossess while retaining its form-class association.

Structure of Words

Considered from the point of view of their morpheme constituents, there are mainly three types of words:

(i) Simple Words: They consist of a single free morpheme followed, or not, by an inflectional suffix, e.g. play, plays, stronger.

(ii) Complex words: They consist of a base and a derivational affix, e.g. goodness, enable, boyhood, determination.

(iii) Compound words: They consist of two (or more) free stems which are independent words by themselves, e.g. over-ripe, happy-go-lucky, elevator-operator.

Compromise Leads to Immortal Love

Compromise leads to the Immortal Love

In the world, there are plenty of discoveries made by Philosophers, Psychologists, Scientists, and Teachers and each discovery has its function and obviously, it has left a deep impact on the world and people’s life. Today, let’s discuss the very subtle philosophy of the world which has been adopted by a few and yearned by all i.e. ‘LOVE’.

The modern world, which has brought plenty of alternatives to get the job done easily and swiftly. On the other side, it has created too many complexities in life. Each person coming to this world gets into the race of competition to grab the high pedestal position and wants the honor and power to leave an impression on an individual’s mind. In today’s easy and swift world, nobody can save time for their loved ones nor do they have it because of the responsibilities and challenges set by the modern world. The mind is filled with so many goals and objectives that human has abandoned thinking about the true values and objectives of life. Here, I do not deny that earning money and securing a good position are bad things to do; but I want to say that we human beings are engulfed so much in today’s routine that we don’t even know what we want. What should we work on? And what should we do? And what we can do? Nobody is thinking in that particular perspective of what life is demanding. As we have touched upon very few aspects of life that are leading the world towards more and more competition and rivalry; and generating more and more complexities targeting the human psyche to develop the element of ‘DESIRE and GREED’, there are limitless factors and causes one can highlight to discuss.

Now, keeping in view the above discussion, I recalled the beautiful lines from one of the poems by, “W.H.DEVIS” that reads ‘WHAT is this life if, full of care, we have no time to stand and stare? The aforementioned lines from the poem make it quite clear that we are swamped in today's world, which has made us hollow to think about Nature and our loved ones. In today’s world the element of racing, grabbing status, earning money, and living a standard of life has played the role of monster that has haunted each person and it has played havoc with the bonds and relationships in homes. Immediate relationships, today, are the victims of doubts and blaming. Married couples, Parents, sons, daughters, and friends are so haunted by greed and blaming that nobody is seeing the other way around. Each person tries their best to degrade another or blame another. Pointing fingers has become the fashion of today’s mind. I recall one of the chapters of the all-time best and highly influential and worldly recognized book “THE SEVEN HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE PEOPLE.” In the very first chapter of this book, there are a lot of important aspects related to personality which have been briefly discussed, and here the one that should be mentioned is, ‘THE WAY WE SEE THE PROBLEM IS THE PROBLEM.’ Here, not everything could be discussed, because the deeper you get into these aspects, the more lengthy discussion can be made. But the point is that today every person is a victim of depression and loneliness and everyone is thirsty for love, compassion, empathy, and understanding. Each person has become like a king or to be more precisely called in Punjabi language ‘Chaudry’ or ‘Lord.’ Today, you can see that every person says, for that is what I see, want, and understand; another should do the same. Nobody wants to bring revolution from within. Each person’s mind is full of scorpions that are feeding his or her depression level. Close relations between Husband and Wife have become so devastating in today’s modern world that they can’t even see nor do they understand nor do they want to understand the real essence of the marriage’s bond. Why is this all happening? Because, as I mentioned before that every person wants another person to change. Every person has generated a demanding nature to such a level that has put a dark curtain on their wit’s eyes that no one is seeing their own mistake. The husband blames the Wife and the Wife is blaming the Husband. For a very subtle and minute reasons, the bond between husband and wife is shattered which results in divorce or living a kind of life that is felt like living death in life. I would like to quote one worth mentioning statement made by S.T.COVEY in the very first chapter of his book where he stated: How many on their deathbeds wished they’d spent more time at the office or watching T.V? The answer is No one. They think about their loved ones, their families, parents, Mom and DAD, sons, daughters, Husbands, Wives, and those with whom they have served a beautiful time or those they served.

And I believe that it is so true that even the top-notch Psychologists and Philosophers of the world, who have discovered theories and have done prolonged studies about satisfied life, say that real happiness and satisfaction in life are found in the attitude of forgiving, forgetting, compromising and love. These attitudes would enable you to do a sigh of comfort and true satisfaction on your death bed.

Today, you are at your peak of nerves, the horse of your mind drags you through the valley of anger, and greed, wanting more and using harsh and dry language with your loved and near ones. Not having control over your brain and yourself has made you self-satisfied that you are a hero or heroine and you are moving ahead. You don’t see what kind of legacy you are leaving behind. Although you don’t care about people’s mouths you are remembered in this world for what you have done to this world and its people.

If we start to apply, from today onwards, the technique of ‘INSIDE OUT’ mentioned in the book of S.R.COVEY: THE 7 HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE PEOPLE. I quote here the exact lines from the book, “INSIDE OUT” MEANS TO START FIST WITH YOURSELF; EVEN MORE FUNDAMENTALLY, TO START WITH THE MOST INSIDE PART OF SELF------WITH YOUR PARADIGMS, YOUR CHARACTER, AND YOUR MOTIVES.

It is a humble request to you that if today you stop blaming the person whether it is your father, mother, sister, brother, son, daughter, wife or husband, cousin, neighbor, or friend, and start to change your perspective you have set about their character and personality and say to yourself that ‘what I am thinking about the problem at hand, is he or she the main cause or is it me who is not thinking another way round? There may be another cause may, there is an inside problem with me. Or maybe, what perspective I have made about the person, would not be genuine or if the person, whosoever he or she is to you, maybe he or she would have done something wrong or maybe you have reacted more …I think it’s quite Ok… other than the grave problem, because in THE HOLY QURAN it is clearly stated that: And man has been created weak [Al-Quran Surah 4: Verse 28].

So the point what I am trying to convey is, that if our LORD ALMIGHTY ALLAH can forgive us and our blunders, sins, mistakes then why not we can…although, you Nature would go on the other side that he is THE LORD ALMIGHTY… I agree with you, indeed he is but what he wants from us is also to be kept in mind and everything is clearly and appositely mentioned in his HOLY QURAN.

So, integrating the above discussion, and keeping in view the subtle points that I mentioned from the book of S.R.COVEY: The DEATH-BED time and the INSIDE-OUT APPROACH are the key points to be kept in mind if you want to bring prosperity to your life. If you have any kind of issue, sit with that person, talk in a low tone, and use soft words and say: let’s wipe out this problem and let’s start a new life so that we could not do any kind of regrets on our DEATH-BED. Take the help of compromise, give space to your loved ones for their blunders and mistakes, don’t react with harsh words and sentences, and don’t become grumpy with your loved ones. Take a mature start, apply the INSIDE-OUT technique, take help from patience and deal with the issue at hand with composed nature. Hold firmly the curb of your fast horse in your mind and do not let it drag you into the dungeon of regrets and repentance. DO COMPROMISE, FORGIVE AND FORGET THE MISTAKES OF YOUR LOVED ONES, ALTHOUGH, IT BREACHES YOUR HEART, CRUMBLES YOUR HOPE AND IT KILLS THE PERSON INSIDE YOU AND IT WOUNDS YOUR MIND AND IT SHATTERS YOUR CHEST BUT YOU KEEP PATIENCE AND TRY TO APPLY WHAT HAS BEEN MENTIONED AS FAR AS POSSIBLE TO KEEP THE VALUABLE BOND IN YOUR LIFE AS A RESULT IT WOULD LEAD TO AN IMMORTAL RELATIONSHIP HAVING IMMORTAL LOVE.

LIVE A HAPPY AND PROSPEROUS LIFE AND TRY TO WATER THE DEAD LIFE INSIDE OTHERS WITH YOUR LOVE, EMPATHY, AND USING SOFT WORDS AND LANGUAGE BECAUSE WORDS CAN HEAL THE GRAVE WOUNDS WHERE THE PILLS CAN NOT REACH.

SMILE ;)

MUHAMMAD NAUMAN

Rime Of ancient Mariner| EVISION | MA English | ASMA SHEIKH

Themes of Rime of Ancient Mariner| S.T. Coleridge | EVISION | ASMA SHEIKH