Sonnets are practically synonymous with Shakespeare, but there are actually two different kinds of this famous poetic form. Having originated in 13th century Italy, the sonnet usually deals with love and has two common forms: the Petrarchan (named for its famous practitioner, the poet Petrarch) and the Shakespearean (also known as the English sonnet). Each type contains 14 lines but comes with its own set of rules.
🍀Petrarchan Sonnet
Characteristics and Rules:
• 2 stanzas
• Presents an argument, observation, or question in the first 8 lines
• Turn (or “volta”) between 8th and 9thlines
• Second stanza answers the question or issue posed in the first
• Rhyme Scheme: ABBA, ABBA, CDECDE
🍀Shakespearean Sonnet
• 3 quatrains (4 lines each) and a couplet (2 lines)
• Couplet usually forms a conclusion
• Rhyme scheme: ABAB, CDCD, EFEF, GG
📌2. Villanelle
Villanelles have even more specific rules than sonnets. Luckily, many of the lines are repetitions, but this means you’ll have to take care to make those lines meaningful.
🍀Villanelle Characteristics and Rules
• 19 lines
• 5 stanzas of 3 lines each
• 1 closing stanza of 4 lines
• Rhyme scheme: ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABAA
• Line 1 repeats in lines 6, 12, and 18
• Line 3 repeats in lines 9, 15, and 19
🍀Examples of Villanelles
“The Waking” by Theodore Roethke
“Do not go gentle into that good night” by Dylan Thomas
📌3. Haiku
The haiku originated in 17th century Japan. Although they usually refer to nature, the only real rule applies to the number of syllables in each line, so you can let your imagination run wild with this one.
🍀Haiku Characteristics and Rules
• 3 lines
• Line 1 contains 5 syllables
• Line 2 contains 7 syllables
• Line 3 contains 5 syllables
🍀Example of Haiku
Matsuo Bashō, “By the Old Temple”:
By the old temple,
peach blossoms;
a man treading rice.
📌4. Ekphrastic Poems
Ekphrastic poems don’t really have specific rules, but they do speak of another work of art.
Ekphrasis comes from the Greek word for “description,” and that’s exactly what this poem should do: vividly describe a painting, statue, photograph, or story. One famous example is found in the Iliad, where Homer refers to Achilles’ shield.
🍀Examples of Ekphrastic Poetry
Tyehimba Jess, “Hagar in the Wilderness”
Rebecca Wolff, “Ekphrastic”
📌5. Concrete Poems
Concrete poetry is designed to take a particular shape or form on the page. Poets can manipulate spacing or layout to emphasize a theme or important element in the text, or sometimes they can take the literal shape of their subjects.
🍀Example of Concrete Poetry
“The Altar” by George Herbert was intended to resemble a church altar.
📌6. Elegy
The elegy is another type of poem that lacks particular rules, but it usually is written in mourning following a death. They can be written for a particular person, or treat the subject of loss more generally.
🍀Example of an Elegy
Walt Whitman’s “O Captain, My Captain,” which Whitman wrote following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln
📌7. Epigram
Epigrams are short, witty, and often satirical poems that usually take the form of a couplet or quatrain (2-4 lines in length).
🍀Example of an Epigram
An example of this wit is provided by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:
Sir, I admit your general rule,
That every poet is a fool,
But you yourself may serve to show it,
That every fool is not a poet.
Epigrams are not exclusive to poetry. They are also commonly used as literary devices and in speeches. John F. Kennedy’s famous quote, “Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind” is one such example.
📌8. Limerick
Limericks are humorous poems that have a more distinct rhythm. Their subject matter is sometimes crude, but always designed to offer laughs.
🍀Limerick Characteristics and Rules
• 5 lines
• 2 longer lines (usually 7-10 syllables)
• 2 shorter lines (usually 5-7 syllables)
• 1 closing line to bring the joke home (7-10 syllables)
• Rhyme scheme: AABBA
🍀Example of Limerick
A wonderful bird is the pelican,
His bill can hold more than his beli-can.
He can take in his beak
Food enough for a week
But I’m damned if I see how the heli-can.
—Dixon Lanier Merritt
📌9. Ballad
Ballads usually take a narrative form to tell us stories. They are often arranged in quatrains, but the form is loose enough that writers can easily modify it.
🍀Ballad Characteristics and Rules
• Typically arranged in groups of 4 lines
• Rhyme scheme: ABAB or ABCB
🍀Example of Ballad
“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe (first two stanzas)
📌10. Epitaph
An epitaph is much like an elegy, only shorter. Epitaphs commonly appear on gravestones, but they can also be humorous. There are no specific rules for epitaphs or their rhyme schemes.
🍀Examples of Epitaphs
From William Shakespeare’s gravestone:
Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blessed be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves by bones.
“Epitaph” by Edna St. Vincent Millay
Heap not on this mound
Roses that she loved so well:
Why bewilder her with roses,
That she cannot see or smell?
She is happy where she lies
With the dust upon her eyes.
📌11. Ode
Odes address a specific person, thing, or event. The ode is believed to have been invented by the ancient Greeks, who would sing their odes. Modern odes follow an irregular pattern and are not required to rhyme.
🍀Example of an Ode
“Ode to the West Wind” by Percy Bysshe Shelley
Scatter, as from an unextinguish’d hearth
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawaken’d earth
The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
📌12. Free Verse
Free verse is exactly what its name implies. There are no rules, and writers can do whatever they choose: to rhyme or not, to establish any rhythm. Free verse is often used in contemporary poetry.
*The Democratic Self*
Whitman celebrates the common man by creating a unified, overarching concept of the self that applies to individuals as well. Whitman often casts himself as the main character in his poems, but the Walt Whitman he refers to is only partially representative of Whitman's own opinions and experiences. He also uses "I" (or himself) to represent the archetypal American man. This technique, known as "an all-powerful I," allows Whitman to draw all Americans into a unified identity with the poet himself as the figurehead. The idea of the Democratic Self is common in the work of Transcendentalist writers like Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
*Individualism*
The ideology of individualism is very prevalent in Whitman's work. This concept thrived in America during the early nineteenth century - a democratic response to the new class of industrial wage-workers. Like Whitman, many powerful thinkers, politicians, and writers encouraged everyday Americans to exercise self-ownership and value original thought. Whitman's poetry often addresses the role of the individual within a collective society while simultaneously emphasizing the importance of self expression.
*Democratic Nature of Poetry*
Whitman saw his poems as more than words on a page - he frequently points out the democratic power of poetry. He felt that form called for vocalization and sharing rather than private, silent consumption of the words - he wrote poetry that he intended to be spoken aloud. In addition to writing inherently communal poetry, he used the medium to celebrate the struggles of the common man. He felt that both the form and the content of his work could sow the democratic spirit in his readers' hearts and minds.
*The Body and Soul*
Whitman emphasizes the connection between the body and the soul repeatedly in his poetry. According to Whitman, the human soul consists of two parts - mind and body. The body is the vessel through which the soul experiences the world, and is therefore sacred. Whitman does not search for divinity within abstract concepts but rather, he finds God in nature and in the human body.
*The Natural World*
Walt Whitman often draws his readers' attention to the everyday miracles of the natural world. He believed that nature facilitated connections between human beings over time, distance, and superficial differences. All human beings, no matter who they are or where they are from, interact with the same elements of nature - the water under a boat or the grass growing around a grave. Whitman portrays nature as all powerful because it can form a uniting bridge across any chasm - ideological or physical.
*War*
Whitman's career coincided with the Civil War. Therefore, many of his poems address themes of war and the loss of humanity that results from physical conflict. Although Whitman was a patriotic man, he was also a pacifist. He believed that war was useless and that fighting was never an effective solution. He worked as a nurse during the Civil War and during that time, he developed many personal relationships with wounded soldiers. He felt that it was his personal responsibility to humanize these brave individuals and honor their sacrifice. "Ashes of Soldiers," in particular, was inspired by soldiers that Whitman met during the war. Though the war was over, he wanted his readers to pause their celebrations and remember the individuals who enabled the victory.
*Eroticism*
Whitman's fascination with the human body drove him to explore themes of both romantic and sexual love in his poetry. Whitman believed that humans should never be ashamed of their physical desires, because the human body is a sacred vessel of the soul. Whitman wrote more freely about eroticism and sex than most of his contemporaries. As a result, poems like "I Sing the Body Electric" sparked controversy within the public and some of the more conservative literary critics of Whitman's era.
Lytton Strachey – first of the great literary biographers
One hundred years ago Lytton Strachey brought out Eminent Victorians, four novella-length biographical essays, composed in burnished, exquisitely ironic prose, that took gleeful aim at Cardinal Henry Edward Manning, Florence Nightingale, Thomas Arnold and Gen. Charles "Chinese" Gordon. These four worthies – 19th-century England's leading Catholic ecclesiastic, the founder of modern nursing, the headmaster of Rugby School (and father of poet and culture critic Matthew Arnold) and the empire's most beloved soldier – were each sent through the wringer. Biography has never been quite the same since.
Strachey (1880-1932) believed that biography was an art, one that required focus, compression and shading, what he called "a becoming brevity", as well as an appealing style and a distinctive authorial point of view. Of the Victorian era's two-volume official lives, he scornfully wrote, "Who does not know them, with their ill-digested masses of material, their slipshod style, their tone of tedious panegyric, their lamentable lack of selection, of detachment, of design?" Art, after all, partly consists in knowing what to leave out.
Eminent Victorians, published in 1918, was Strachey's second book, preceded by the spirited and still useful Landmarks in French Literature and by dozens of essays and reviews. To read these or any of Strachey's shorter works – the best are collected in Books and Characters and Portraits in Miniature – is to discover a Strachey who is less the feline debunker and more an amused and amusing appreciator. The sketch of a minor Elizabethan, such as Sir John Harington, the brilliant critical pieces on Alexander Pope and Stendhal, the accounts of rival French salon hostesses Madame du Deffand and Mademoiselle de Lespinasse – these remain ever-fresh examples of what one might call literary entertainment. No wonder that the master of that subgenre, Max Beerbohm, esteemed Strachey so highly and spoke almost gushingly about the beauty of his prose.
Lytton Strachey's argument in <i>Eminent Victorians</I> - that biographies should shape their material rather than simply ladle it out in gobs - is now orthodoxy. iStock
Poking fun at piety
In some ways, that prose is what mainly survives today of Eminent Victorians. Being an agnostic aesthete and a leading member of the Bloomsbury circle, Strachey couldn't resist poking fun at piety and earnestness, seeing in them the outward form of religious mania and personal ambition. As a result, his lively essays have been dismissed by later scholars for seriously misrepresenting their subjects. No matter. Eminent Victorians can still be read, and should be read, just for its style and superb storytelling.
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Let me cite some examples. Strachey didn't worship Florence Nightingale as the saintly "Lady With the Lamp", as she was once commonly nicknamed, but instead viewed her as a force of nature. After describing Nightingale's accomplishments in hospital reform, he wrote: "It was not by gentle sweetness and womanly self-abnegation that she had brought order out of chaos ... It was by strict method, by stern discipline, by rigid attention to detail, by ceaseless labour, by the fixed determination of an indomitable will." For years I kept this passage pinned above my desk.
Besides forging sentences like hammer blows, Strachey could also orchestrate longer, bravura passages, such as this one from the opening pages about Cardinal Manning.
"For many generations the Church of England had slept the sleep of the ... comfortable. The sullen murmurings of dissent, the loud battle-cry of revolution, had hardly disturbed her slumbers. Portly divines subscribed with a sign or a smile to the Thirty-nine Articles, sank quietly into easy livings, rode gaily to hounds of a morning as gentlemen should, and, as gentlemen should, carried their two bottles of an evening. To be in the Church was in fact simply to pursue one of those professions which Nature and Society had decided were proper to gentlemen and gentlemen alone. The fervours of piety, the zeal of Apostolic charity, the enthusiasm of self-renunciation - these things were all very well in their way-and in their place; but their place was certainly not the Church of England."
In the essay on Thomas Arnold, Strachey grows almost aphoristic when he sums up English boarding schools as "a system of anarchy tempered by despotism" or refers to masters instructing boys in "the bleak rigidities of the ancient tongues". When Arnold, "rapt in devotion or vibrant with exhortation", sermonised in Rugby chapel, it is said that he "propounded the general principles both of his own conduct and that of the Almighty". Note the presumption that Strachey slyly assigns to the schoolmaster.
Cinematic account
In 1885, Gen. Charles "Chinese" Gordon perished in the defence of Khartoum, slaughtered by followers of the Mahdi, the upstart Arab leader who claimed to be a promised messiah. Strachey's exceptionally exciting, even cinematic account of this event rivals Lawrence of Arabia in its depiction of the spiritually tormented Gordon of the Sudan. It also tries, through a barrage of rhetorical questions, to determine who was to blame for Gordon's death – the man himself? His Islamic doppelganger, the Mahdi? The English press? The dilly-dallying politicians of London and Egypt? The correct answer is, of course, all of them.
Lytton Strachey didn't worship Florence Nightingale as the saintly 'Lady With the Lamp', as she was once commonly nicknamed, but instead viewed her as a force of nature.
Still, Strachey's depiction of the Middle East as a bloody crossroads where religious fervour, nationalism, inept colonialism and rank ambition come together seems all too familiar. Not that Strachey exempts the West of its own fanaticism. As a young soldier, Gordon was sent out to China, where "he was in time to witness the destruction of the Summer Palace at Peking – the act by which Lord Elgin, in the name of European civilisation, took vengeance upon the barbarism of the East".
Strachey's argument in Eminent Victorians – that biographies should shape their material rather than simply ladle it out in gobs – is now orthodoxy. Even multivolume works, such as John Richardson's Life of Picasso or Robert A. Caro's The Years of Lyndon Johnson, pay as much attention to their narrative artistry as they do to spadework in archives or the interviewing of castoff mistresses and ageing politicians. For at least some of this, we can thank the iconoclastic Lytton Strachey.
Washington Post
Eminent Victorians, by Lytton Strachey, Penguin Classics, first published, 1918. Michael Dirda is a US literary critic.
“Last Ride Together” - Critical Appreciation
Robert Browning’s “Last Ride Together” is a monologue of a rejected lover that expresses his undying love for his beloved. The dramatic situation appears to be one in which the lover, upon being rejected by his mistress, asks for, and is granted, one last horseback ride with her across a mysterious landscape. The ride, however, seems to stretch out to eternity; there is no sense of time demarcation, but a continuous unfurling of landscape. The poem echoes the ‘carpe diem’ motif of seizing the present.
The poet dwells on the significance of the present as he concentrates on the ride. He contemplates on why people attach so much significance to the past and future, than focusing on the present. His soul that was hitherto a long “scramped scroll ” smoothens itself out .The metaphor connotes living life to the fullest in elation and ecstasy for the moment. The scroll freshens and flutters in the wind in intense euphoria. Why does one get carried away by past actions:
Had I said that, had I done this,
So might I gain, so might I miss.
Why do people leave room for doubts, suspicions, failure, misgivings that haunt the present instead of protecting it, and distracting the same? One should breathe each moment as though there is no room for regret. “The Last Ride Together” makes profound statements concerning the irrelevance of the past in relation to present emotions and sentiments. More specifically, Browning discusses hopes that have not been fulfilled, and places them in direct contrast to present circumstances. By revealing the idea that sentiments and events of the past often have little effect on future outcomes, Browning suggests that life should not involve dwelling on the past or hoping for the future, but living in the moment.
The lover as he rides with his beloved continues to think about the world. He says that brain and hand cannot go together hand in hand. Conception and execution can never be paired together. Man is not able to make pace with his actions to match with his ambitions. He plans a lot but achieves a little. The lover feels that he has at least achieved a little success by being able to ride with his beloved. He compares himself with a statesman and a soldier. A statesman works hard all his life but all his efforts are merely published in a book or as an obituary in newspapers. Similarly a soldier dies fighting for his country and is buried in the Westminster Abbey, which is his only reward after death. Sometimes an epitaph is raised in his memory but that is all. The lover then compares his lot with that of a poet. He believes that a poet’s reward is too small compared with his skills. He composed sweet lyrics, thoughts of emotions of others, views that men should achieve beautiful things in life. But the reward he gets in return is very little and he dies in poverty in the prime of his life. Compared to the poet, the lover considers himself luckier as he has at least achieved the consolation of riding with his lover for the last time. The lover thinks that it would be a heaven on earth for him if he continues to ride with his beloved forever. He wishes that the moment should become everlasting so that they could continue to ride together forever and ever. That would indeed be heavenly bliss for him.
Thus through this poem, Browning expresses the view that, the past is insignificant, and that one may only live in the moment in order to pursue happiness in life. "The Last Ride Together" indicates that life is a long journey that is best played out with a special love. Seeing every day as one’s last can really put a new perspective on everyday experiences and life in general. The juxtapositions of city and ruins, hope for love and a last ride together, both illustrate this idea dramatically. One can learn not to look back on what one hoped for, but only to look forward at what one has.
The comedy of manners, also called anti-sentimental comedy, is a form of comedy that satirizes the manners and affectations of contemporary society and questions societal standards. Social class stereotypes are often represented through stock characters such as the miles gloriosus ("boastful soldier") in ancient Greek comedy or the fop and rake of English Restoration comedy, which is sometimes used as a synonym for "comedy of manners".[1] A comedy of manners often sacrifices the plot, which usually centers on some scandal, to witty dialogue and sharp social commentary. Oscar Wilde's play, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), which satirized the Victorian morality of the time, is one of the best-known plays of this genre.
The comedy of manners was first developed in the New Comedy period of ancient Greek comedy and is known today primarily from fragments of writings by the Greek playwright Menander. Menander's style, elaborate plots, and stock characters were imitated by the ancient Roman playwrights, such as Plautus and Terence, whose comedies were in turn widely known and reproduced during the Renaissance. Some of the best-known comedies of manners are those by the 17th-century French playwright Molière, who satirized the hypocrisy and pretension of the ancien régime in plays such as L'École des femmes ([The School for Wives], 1662), Tartuffe ([The Imposter], 1664), and Le Misanthrope ([The Misanthrope], 1666).
Of course Shelley’s atheism is a famous part of his philosophical stance, so it may seem strange that he has written a hymn of any kind. He addresses that strangeness in the third stanza, when he declares that names such as “Demon, Ghost, and Heaven” are merely the record of attempts by sages to explain the effect of the Spirit of Beauty—but that the effect has never been explained by any “voice from some sublimer world.” The Spirit of Beauty that the poet worships is not supernatural, it is a part of the world. It is not an independent entity; it is a responsive capability within the poet’s own mind.
If the “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty” is not among Shelley’s very greatest poems, it is only because its project falls short of the poet’s extraordinary powers; simply drawing the abstract ideal of his own experience of beauty and declaring his fidelity to that ideal seems too simple a task for Shelley. His most important statements on natural beauty and on aesthetics will take into account a more complicated idea of his own connection to nature as an expressive artist and a poet, as we shall see in “To a Skylark” and “Ode to the West Wind.” Nevertheless, the “Hymn” remains an important poem from the early period of Shelley’s maturity. It shows him working to incorporate Wordsworthian ideas of nature, in some ways the most important theme of early Romanticism, into his own poetic project, and, by connecting his idea of beauty to his idea of human religion, making that theme explicitly his own.
Summary
The speaker says that the shadow of an invisible Power floats among human beings, occasionally visiting human hearts—manifested in summer winds, or moonbeams, or the memory of music, or anything that is precious for its mysterious grace. Addressing this Spirit of Beauty, the speaker asks where it has gone, and why it leaves the world so desolate when it goes—why human hearts can feel such hope and love when it is present, and such despair and hatred when it is gone. He asserts that religious and superstitious notions—”Demon, Ghost, and Heaven”—are nothing more than the attempts of mortal poets and wise men to explain and express their responses to the Spirit of Beauty, which alone, the speaker says, can give “grace and truth to life’s unquiet dream.” Love, Hope, and Self-Esteem come and go at the whim of the Spirit, and if it would only stay in the human heart forever, instead of coming and going unpredictably, man would be “immortal and omnipotent.” The Spirit inspires lovers and nourishes thought; and the speaker implores the spirit to remain even after his life has ended, fearing that without it death will be “a dark reality.”
The speaker recalls that when he was a boy, he “sought for ghosts,” and traveled through caves and forests looking for “the departed dead”; but only when the Spirit’s shadow fell across him—as he mused “deeply on the lot / Of life” outdoors in the spring—did he experience transcendence. At that moment, he says, “I shrieked, and clasped my hands in ecstasy!” He then vowed that he would dedicate his life to the Spirit of Beauty; now he asserts that he has kept his vow—every joy he has ever had has been linked to the hope that the “awful Loveliness” would free the world from slavery, and complete the articulation of his words.
The speaker observes that after noon the day becomes “more solemn and serene,” and in autumn there is a “lustre in the sky” which cannot be found in summer. The speaker asks the Spirit, whose power descended upon his youth like that truth of nature, to supply “calm” to his “onward life”—the life of a man who worships the Spirit and every form that contains it, and who is bound by the spells of the Spirit to “fear himself, and love all humankind.”
Form
Each of the seven long stanzas of the “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty” follows the same, highly regular scheme. Each line has an iambic rhythm; the first four lines of each stanza are written in pentameter, the fifth line in hexameter, the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh lines in tetrameter, and the twelfth line in pentameter. (The syllable pattern for each stanza, then, is 555564444445.) Each stanza is rhymed ABBAACCBDDEE.
Commentary
This lyric hymn, written in 1816, is Shelley’s earliest focused attempt to incorporate the Romantic ideal of communion with nature into his own aesthetic philosophy. The “Intellectual Beauty” of the poem’s title does not refer to the beauty of the mind or of the working intellect, but rather to the intellectual idea of beauty, abstracted in this poem to the “Spirit of Beauty,” whose shadow comes and goes over human hearts. The poem is the poet’s exploration both of the qualities of beauty (here it always resides in nature, for example), and of the qualities of the human being’s response to it (“Love, Hope, and Self-esteem”).
The poem’s process is doubly figurative or associative, in that, once the poet abstracts the metaphor of the Spirit from the particulars of natural beauty, he then explains the workings of this Spirit by comparing it back to the very particulars of natural beauty from which it was abstracted in the first place: “Thy light alone, like mist o’er mountains driven”; “Love, Hope, and Self-esteem, like clouds depart...” This is an inspired technique, for it enables Shelley to illustrate the stunning experience of natural beauty time and again as the poem progresses, but to push the particulars into the background, so that the focus of the poem is always on the Spirit, the abstract intellectual ideal that the speaker claims to serve.
Department of English Language & Applied Linguistics
Code-switching in the English classroom
Written by Mahjabeen Malik
Dated: 11th November 2018
Abstract
Code-switching is a widely observed phenomenon in multilingual and multicultural communities like Pakistan. Code-switching is a phenomenon that exists in bilingual societies where people have the opportunity to use two or more languages to communicate. Being able to speak more than one language, bilinguals can code-switch and use their languages as resources to find better ways to convey meaning. Code-switching occurs in English classrooms in upper secondary school every day.
Code-Switching is generally defined as a shift from one language to another by the speaker during the speech. It is a common linguistic phenomenon in Pakistani classrooms. It is considered to have both a positive and negative impact. This exploratory study investigated the perceptions of Pakistani students towards teachers’ code-switching during English lectures at tertiary level. Students have different attitudes towards code-switching of teachers in a classroom. There is a need to investigate whether it is beneficial or malevolent to switch between two codes in an English classroom and how the students view this alternation between codes. The researchers employed 5- point Likert scale questionnaire along with 12 open-ended questions to investigate the perceptions of the students towards code-switching of English language teachers during lecture. The findings of the study revealed positive attitude of the students towards teachers’ code-switching, however some of the students were of the view that code-switching by teachers restricts their exposure to English. Keywords: English language, Urdu language, code-switching
Introduction Pakistan is a multilingual state with English as its official language (Rahman, 2010; H. Khan, 2011; Coleman, 2010). English holds central position in the linguistic scenario of Pakistan as it claims to be language of education, offices, administration, technology, research, etc (Sultana, 2007; Dar, Akhtar, & Khalid, 2014; Atique & Khan, 2015; Ali & Khan, 2015; Dar & Khan, 2014; Sultan, 2015). Learning English has been of vital importance for students from primary level and it continues to have importance even at tertiary level of their education. Though learning English is considered a challenging task for Pakistani English language learners, yet they realize the importance of learning it. Varieties of other languages are also spoken in Pakistan and people unconsciously mix and switch between languages in their communication (Rukh, 2014; Iqbal, 2011) Code-switching has become a very common phenomenon in Pakistan and people commonly switch between Urdu and English. In daily life, on media and even in formal conversation people switch between codes (K. R. Khan, 2004). The occurrence of English in Urdu has become a common phenomenon in textbooks as well (Noor, Anwar, Muhabat, & Kazemian, 2015). In spoken discourse English teachers switch code during their lectures for different (∗Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities, NED University of Engineering and Tech Journal of Education & Social Sciences purposes, for example giving instructions, clarifying new vocabulary, managing classrooms etc). Teachers switch from English to Urdu either to explain things better or to build rapport with their students . Some students are in favor and some are against code-switching in English classes . When code-switching is used to facilitate, students can have both positive and negative attitude towards it. Hence, the attitude of tertiary level students towards teachers’ code-switching needs to be explored in ESL context in Pakistan in order to devise teaching strategies to fulfill needs of the students. This study focuses on students’ perception of teachers’ code-switching during lectures and specifically the study explored answer to the following question: • What are the perceptions of Pakistani undergraduate English language learners towards English language teachers’ code-switching from English to Urdu language during lectures?
In language acquisition: In studies of bilingual language acquisition, code-mixing refers to a developmental stage during which children mix elements of more than one language. Nearly all bilingual children go through a period in which they move from one language to another without apparent discrimination. This differs from code-switching, which is understood as the socially and grammatically appropriate use of multiple varieties.
Beginning at the babbling stage, young children in bilingual or multilingual environments produce utterances that combine elements of both (or all) of their developing languages. Some linguists suggest that this code-mixing reflects a lack of control or ability to differentiate the languages. Others argue that it is a product of limited vocabulary; very young children may know a word in one language but not in another. More recent studies argue that this early code-mixing is a demonstration of a developing ability to code-switch in socially appropriate ways.
Internal-Code-Switching
If the code-switching occurs among regional languages in one national language, or among dialects in one regional language, or among some styles in one dialect, it is called as Internal Code-switching.
External Code-Switching
If code-switching occurs among native language and foreign language is called as External Code-switching.
Linguistic Convergence
The other features of code-mixing are that the language or variant elements that are inserted in other language have no more functions. These elements have united in the language they are inserted is called as Linguistic Convergence. Inner Code-mixing: originated from the native language with its all variations. Outer Code-mixing: originated from foreign language.
Code-Mixing: The use of two or more language by putting in/inserting linguistic elements in one language into other language consistently. In code-mixing, dependency features are marked by the relationship between the language role and function. If the speaker mixes his/her code/language, then it must be asked who the speaker is: his/her social background, level of education, religion, etc.
Some linguists use the terms code-mixing to utterances that draw from elements of two or more grammatical systems. These studies are often interested in the alignment of elements from distinct systems, or on constraints that limit switching.
Some work defines code-mixing as the placing or mixing of various linguistic units (affixes, words, phrases, clauses) from two different grammatical systems within the same sentence and speech context, while code-switching is the placing or mixing of units (words, phrases, sentences) from two codes within the same speech context.
Francis Bacon made a significant contribution to human knowledge by insisting that the production of Knowledge should be aimed at addressing the affairs of mundane human existence.Prove or refute the idea by referring to the essays in your syllabus.
1. CONTRIBUTION OF BACON
2. HUMAN NATURE
3. PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
4. MUNDANE HUMAN EXISTENCE AFFAIRS
ESSAYS
MARRIAGE, PARENTS…….ESSAYS
ANY 10 ESSAYS ESSAYS REFERNCE
CONCLUSION
Prose in Bacon,s hands became a tool for critical thinking instead of submission to the authority of past. Discuss with reference your reading of Bacon. 2019(S)
PROSE
BACON CONTRIBUTE IN PROSE
BREVITY
TERSENESS
PROSE STYLE
2012-2018
Q; In "of marriage and single life" Bacon talks of both in favour of married as well as single life. Discuss the arguments which he gives in favour of married as well as single life.
2012 annual
Q; In " of Revenge" bacon gives many arguments to convince The Reader that man should not take revenge. Throw light on them.
2012 supply
Q; Analyse in detail the relationship between parents and children as discussed by Francis Bacon.
2013 Annual
Q; Reaching a great place and sustaining a great place both are difficult discuss with reference to
"of great place".
2013 Annual
Q; Analyse in detail how bacon severely criticizes superstitious people.
2013 supplementary
Q; Bring out the rationale of Bacon against "of superstitions"
2014 annual
Q; What are the benefits and drawbacks of rising to a great place? Discuss in light of bacon's of "great place"
2014 annual
Q; Discuss the relationship of parents and children keep bacon's "of parents and children".
2014 supply
Q; Bacon wrote his essays in aphorisms, each separate thought expressed in
few brief sentences set off by painter's mark. Discuss
APHORISM DEFINITION
BACON APHORISTICS STYLE
REFERENCE OF HIS ESSAYS
CONCLUSION
2014 supply
Q; After reading bacon's essays, do you think that you could raise a philosophy of life?
Discuss with reference to bacon.
Bacon as a philosopher
2015 annual
Q; Discuss francis Bacon as a moralist.
moralist
2015 supply
Q; Death is not frightening in Bacon? Discuss with reference to "on Death"
2015 supply
Q; How does bacon theorise power in "of great place"
2016 annual
Q; Discuss the main arguments in "of simulation and dissimulation" in Bacon.
2016 supply
Q; Discuss the main arguments in "Adversity" 0f Bacon.
2018 annual
Q; Bacon's prose style.
2018 annual
Q; Discuss Francis Bacon as a rationalist.
Rationalist
ThatBacon preferred reason to revelation as the source of philosophical and scientific knowledge can make one regard Bacon as a rationalist to some extent but more of an empiricist. But the reason Bacon has in mind is the systematic reason on which his inductive method is based
2018 supply
Q; Death is not frightening in Bacon? Discuss with reference to "on Death"
2018 supply.
FrancisBacon served as attorney general and Lord Chancellor of England, resigning amid charges of corruption. His more valuable work was philosophical. Bacon took up Aristotelian ideas, arguing for an empirical, inductive approach, known as the scientific method, which is the foundation of modern scientific inquiry
Francis Bacon discovered and popularized the scientific method, whereby the laws of science are discovered by gathering and analyzing data from experiments and observations, rather than by using logic-based arguments.
Philosopher SirFrancis Bacon created a doctrine called “The 4 Idols of the Mind” which addresses all of the errors, illusions, and corruptions which mentally prevents many people from having a true understanding of nature and reality.
Francis Bacon was the pioneer ofessay writing in English literature. He wrote when society was dupicted by drama and poetry. He was the first one , who evolve the prose in English Literature.
Bacon was a devoutAnglican. He believed that philosophy and the natural world must be studied inductively, but argued that we can only study arguments for the existence of God.
Today,Bacon is still widely regarded as a major figure in scientific methodology and natural philosophy during the English Renaissance. Having advocated an organized system of obtaining knowledge with a humanitarian goal in mind, he is largely credited with ushering in the new early modern era of human understanding.
After Apple-Picking By Robert Frost(stanza explanation)
😊👇🌷🌹
Stanza 1:👇🌷
My long two-pointed ladders sticking through a tree
Towards heaven still,
And theres barrel that I didnt fill Beside it, and thee may be two or three Apples I didnt pick upon some bough
But I am done with apple-picking now.
Reference:
These lines have been taken from the poem
After apple picking� written by Robert Frost�.
Context:
In this poem, the poet compares the process of apple picking with the tiring work of this world. Perhaps, we all are busy in our works and are trying hard to survive in this world. But, even then we have to accept the inevitable death. We have no alternative but to leave everything aside for this reality.
Explanation:
In these lines, the poet introduces himself as an apple picker. He has been working in his apple orchard for a long time. He is filling barrels after barrels. He has picked a lot of apple but many are still to be picked. But now he is feeling tired and wants to have some rest. Actually, the poet wants to say that when man becomes tired then he wants to take some rest, leaving behind all his works.
Stanza 2:
Essence of winter sleep is on the night, The scent of apples: I am drowsing off.
I cannot rub the strangeness from my sight
I got from looking through a pane of glass
I skimmed this morning from the drinking trough
And I held against the world of hoary grass
It melted, and I let it fall and break. But I was well
Upon my way to sleep before it fell, And I could tell
Reference to the Context:
Same as above.
Explanation:
In these lines, the poet gives a pictorial description of the garden where he is working. He says that smell of apples creates such an effect on him that he starts dozing. Although, he has not completed his work, yet he cannot escape from the captivating smell of apples. There was a long open box of drinking water for animals in the garden. The water in it had a frozen ice. The poet removed a sheet of ice from it in the morning and held it before him. Through this sheet of ice he looked at the white snow covered grass. The poet was sleepy as the sheet of ice was falling form his hands.
Stanza 3:
What from my dreaming was about to take Magnified apples appear and disappear, Stem end and blossom end,
And every fleck of russet showing clear.
My instep arch not only keeps the arch; It keeps the pressure of ladder-round
I feel the ladder sway as the boughs bend. And I keep hearing from the cellar bin The rumbling sound
Of load on load of apples coming in.
Reference to the Context:
Same as above.
Explanation:
Here in these lines, the poet describes his dreams while he is half sleep. The apples appear before him in large size and disappear. The trees, from the roots up to the branches giving flowers of the fruit, appear. The reddish brown colour of apples becomes clearly visible to the poet. Still standing on the ladder, his instep is keeping the ladder in balancing. But the branches of the tree
have started shaking. The dream of the poet continues and he hears the rolling sound of apples
stored in the cellar, as their huge loads arrive.
Stanza 4:
For I have had too much
Of apple-picking; I am overtired
Of the great harvest I myself desired.
There were ten thousand thousand fruit to touch, Cherish in hand, left down and not let fall
For all
That struck the earth
No matter if not bruised or spiked with stubble, Went surely to the cider-apple heap
As of no worth.
Reference to the Context:
Same as above.
Explanation:
In these lines, the poet explains that he has tired from apple picking. Still, there are thousands of apples on the trees and he wants to pluck all these apples with his own hands. He knows that all those apples that fell down and hit the ground, will surely become useless for storage. These spoiled apples will then be crushed for juice in the machine.
Stanza 5:
One can see what will trouble
This sleep of mine, whatever sleep it is, Were he no gone,
The woodchuck could say whether it̢۪s like his
Longs sleep, as I describe-its coming on
Of just some human sleep.
Reference to the Context:
Same as above.
Explanation:
These are ending lines of the poem. The poet says that who wants to sleep is well aware what will disturb his sleep. Apart forms that, he wants to know what kind of sleep he is having. He says woodchuck could tell it easily about it. But that animal has gone. Now poet does not say surely whether his sleep will be like that of woodchuck or just a normal sleep for a few hours. He cannot also say whether it will be ordinary human sleep or the sleep of death. Here, in these lines the poet ends his poem with these thoughts that all our activities ends in sleep. Death is also an sleep that ends our tiresome journey of life.
Hamlet is arguably the greatest dramatic character ever created. From the moment we meet the crestfallen prince we are enraptured by his elegant intensity. Shrouded in his inky cloak, Hamlet is a man of radical contradictions -- he is reckless yet cautious, courteous yet uncivil, tender yet ferocious. He meets his father's death with consuming outrage and righteous indignation, yet shows no compunction when he himself is responsible for the deaths of the meddling Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and the pontificating lord chamberlain, Polonius. He uses the fragile and innocent Ophelia as an outlet for his disgust towards the queen, and cannot comprehend that his own vicious words have caused her insanity. Hamlet is full of faults. But how is it that even seemingly negative qualities such as indecisiveness, hastiness, hate, brutality, and obsession can enhance Hamlet's position as a tragic hero; a prince among men? To answer these questions we must journey with Hamlet from beginning to end, and examine the many facets of his character.
Our first impression of Hamlet sets the tone for the whole play. Even without Shakespeare providing an elaborate description of Hamlet's features, we can envision his pale face, tousled hair, and intense, brooding eyes. Dressed totally in black, Hamlet displays all the forms, moods and shapes of grief. His mother cannot help but notice Hamlet's outward appearance of mourning, but Hamlet makes it clear that the overt signs of grief do not come close to conveying how much sorrow he feels inside:
For they are the actions that a man might play,
But I have that within which passes show,
These but the trappings and the suits of woe. (I.ii.84-6)
Hamlet cannot forget his father, even when all those around him have resumed their merry lives, content to offer the occasional conciliatory words of wisdom. The queen, considering she has lost a husband, offers up the rather unhelpful "Thou know'st tis common, all that lives must die/Passing through nature to eternity" (I.ii.71-2), and Claudius adds, amongst other things, "We pray you to throw to earth/This unprevailing woe, and think of us/As of a father" (I.ii.106-8). Hamlet's tremendous grief is intensified by this lack of feeling by those around him, and more significantly, by the cold-hearted actions of his mother, who married her brother-in-law within a month of her husband's death. This act of treachery by Gertrude, whom Hamlet obviously loved greatly at one time, rips the very fabric of Hamlet's being, and he tortures himself with memories of his late father's tenderness towards his mother:
So excellent a king, that was to this
Hyperion to a satyr, so loving to my mother,
That he might not beteem the winds of heaven
Visit her face too roughly; heaven and earth,
Must I remember?... (I.ii.141-45)
The respect and awe Hamlet has for his father is seen in the above passage, as the Prince compares the late king to Hyperion, a Titan in classical mythology. The godlike view of his father is enhanced by the comparison of Claudius to Hyperion's antithesis, the satyr, a creature half-goat and half-man, known for its drunken and lustful behavior -- the behaviors of the new king, Claudius. It is no wonder, then, that Hamlet develops a disgust for, not only Claudius the man, but all of the behaviors and excesses associated with Claudius. Hamlet begins to find revelry of any kind unacceptable, but particularly he loathes drinking and sensual dancing. As they await the Ghost on the castle wall, Hamlet hears the King engaging in merriment down below, and tells Horatio that the whole world is feeling the same contempt for his drunken countrymen:
This heavy-headed revel east and west
Makes us traduc'd, and tax'd of other nations;
They clepe us drunkards, and with swinish phrase
Soil our addition; and indeed it takes
From our achievements, though perform'd at height,
The pith and marrow of our attribute. (I.iv.17-22)
It is unfortunate for the innocent Ophelia that the actions of Claudius and Gertrude have also tainted forever Hamlet's thoughts and feelings towards women. Based on the letters and gifts Hamlet gave his once-cherished Ophelia, it is apparent that he did love the girl, and likely felt those feelings of sweet devotion that his father felt for his mother. But, whether due to some overwhelming desire to become the mouthpiece for his father who cannot himself chastise his traitorous wife, or due to the sad fact that all the love in him has truly dried up, Hamlet turns on Ophelia and destroys her, with cruelty almost unimaginable:
I have heard of your paintings well enough
God hath given you one face,
and you make yourselves another: you jig,
you amble, and you lisp,
you nick-name God's creatures, and
make your wantonness your ignorance. (III.i.144-48)
As the play he has arranged for the King begins, Hamlet takes a much different tone with Ophelia:
Hamlet: Lady, shall I lie in your lap?
Lying down at Ophelia's feet.
Ophelia: No, my lord.
Hamlet: I mean, my head upon your lap?
Ophelia: Ay, my lord.
Hamlet: Do you think I meant country matters?
Ophelia: I think nothing, my lord.
Hamlet: That's a fair thought to lie between maids' legs. (III.ii.111-20)
Some argue that this scene supports the theory that Hamlet is truly mad; that, unable to control his own thoughts and feelings, he hates Ophelia one moment and longs to engage in sexual intimacy with her the next. But Hamlet is not expressing his desire for Ophelia; he is not lost in the fog of his own madness. Although he does not, this time, lash out at her with overt cruelty, he is nevertheless once again heartlessly mistreating her with demeaning and disrespectful behavior. And Hamlet obviously is using Ophelia to further his facade of insanity -- his actions are clearly for the benefit of old Polonius, who already believes that Hamlet has gone mad for want of Ophelia's love.
Hamlet must be held accountable for his treatment of Ophelia. He is not incoherent or paranoid; his ferocity cannot be blamed on insanity. In his destruction of his beloved creature Hamlet is lucid and brilliant, fueled by rage and thoughts of Gertrude's betrayal. Ophelia is the only outlet for the hostility that he must keep secret from the King. The belief that Hamlet still genuinely loves Ophelia, and that his deep sensitivity and hunger for justice compel him to behave the way he does, allows us to conclude that Hamlet is at once so heartless and yet so virtuous. The actual recognition of his love for Ophelia can only come when Hamlet realizes that she is dead, and free from her tainted womanly trappings:
I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers
Could not, with all their quantity of love,
Make up my sum. (V.i.263-4)
Hidden beneath Hamlet's bitter cynicism and cruel words is a desire to embrace those that fate dictates he must despise. Even when he confronts his mother and is so relentless that the Ghost must intercede on her behalf, we know that Hamlet longs to show her affection; to comfort her and to be comforted by her. But love, pleasure, and tenderness all have disappeared behind Hamlet's encompassing wall of depression and overwhelming responsibility. The royal couple's actions have destroyed his faith in humanity, and he contemplates suicide. He declares "I do not set my life at a pin's fee" (I.iv.65), and, in act III, he soliloquizes:
...To die; to sleep,
No more, and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to; 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep; (III.i.60-4)
Any possibility he had of regaining a semblance of normalcy and happiness is gone when the Ghost of his father demands Hamlet seek revenge. Although Hamlet himself desires to see Claudius pay for his crime, he realizes the evil in the deed of killing the King, prompted by both "heaven and hell" (II.ii.586). The Ghost has placed Hamlet in a most unnatural position by asking him to commit murder. Hamlet hates the King for his treachery, but he would not act on that hate if he were not prompted to do so by the Ghost. Hamlet is an introspective scholar. He is reflective and pensive, and we see this throughout the play as Hamlet delays the moment of revenge as long as he possibly can. It appears to the audience that only a little time has elapsed since Hamlet's meeting with the Ghost, but, in fact, months have gone by. And the perfect opprtunity to kill Claudius as he prays alone in his chamber is passed up by Hamlet, who makes excuses that the timing is not yet perfect. As Gareth Lloyd Evans writes in his book Shakespeare IV:
...Hamlet's arguments for not killing Claudius at prayers are both subtle and logical -- too subtle, in fact, considering the enormity of Claudius' deed and the virtual certainty that Hamlet possesses of his guilt. Yet he holds back his sword--his heart does not seem to lie in its blade. (35)
Hamlet's perpetual introspection does finally help him to overcome his great anxiety. When he returns from exile in Act V, we see a very different Hamlet. He is calm, rational, and less afraid of death than merely indifferent. He has come to the realization that destiny is ultimately controlling all of our lives:
Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting,
That would not let me sleep: methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly,
And prais'd be rashness for it, let us know,
Our indiscretion sometime serves us well
When our deep plots do pall, and that should learn us
There's a divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them how we will. (V.ii.4-11)
Hamlet is ready to confront the paradoxical truth that to avenge his father's death he must commit the very same act for which he seeks revenge. Using fate as the scapegoat, Hamlet can distance himself from the act of killing Claudius. He can now admit that he knows nothing of the world, "since no man knows aught of what he leaves, what is't to leave betimes? Let be." (V.ii.209-14). Hamlet has reached the climax of his philosophizing; he has prepared himself for death.
When Hamlet does finally die, it is his princely qualities that make the lasting imprint in our minds. Hamlet remains
The courtier's, soldier's, scholar's, eye, tongue, sword,
The expectancy and rose of the fair state,
The glass of fashion, and the mould of form
The observ'd of all observers (III.i.151-154)
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