“Of Death

Sir Francis Bacon has written “Of Death” in order to end the fear of death from human minds. He suggests that a person should either nip the fear of death in the bud or at least overpower it. Sir Francis Bacon has written “Of Death” in order to end the fear of death from human minds. He suggests that a person should either nip the fear of death in the bud or at least overpower it. Sir Francis Bacon fully explains the fear of death and elucidates its different perspectives. He also speaks against false preaching of Monks and religious scholars. In his views, they have exaggerated death, due to which it has become dreadful. The essay has many ideas; he supports every idea through an example. He also mentions proverbs of old philosophers, through which he strengthens his stance. Style of the poet is simple and lucid yet his arguments are solid. At the end of the essay, readers feel that the author has convinced them. Ultimately, readers thank Sir Francis Bacon because fear of death, at least for the time being, diminishes from the minds of the readers.

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Why Do People Fear from Death?
It is true that people afraid of death just like children afraid of the darkness. Why do they fear? Bacon answers it. Children listen stories of ghosts; elders tell them that ghosts appear at night; therefore, they feel afraid of darkness. Similarly, agonies of death are told to human beings due to which they fear from it. When a person thinks about death, he imagines it from one of the two perspectives: religious and natural. If he is thinking that death is a procedure to travel from one world to the other and he would be punished because of his sins, then he is thinking from a religious perspective. Conversely, a person may think from a natural perspective; he may think that death is certain; it is the law of nature. However, Bacon thinks that in case of natural death, fear is an act of cowardliness.

Bacon then criticizes religious beliefs. He believes that scholars have mixed religion with superstition. There are some books, in which it is mentioned that death is painful suffering. He then quotes an example of squeezing a finger; “a man should think with himself what the pain is if he has but his finger’s end pressed or tortured, and thereby imagine what the pains of death are, when whole body is corrupted and dissolved”. In Sir Francis Bacon ’s eyes, death has been exaggerated due to which people are afraid of death. Death Vs. Its Concept:

Death Vs Its Concept in the Eyes of Sir Francis Bacon:
What is more horrifying? Death or its concept? The author refers to Roman Philosopher Seneca, who said that it is not the death but its concept, which is fearful. When people put their feet in shoes of the person, who is near to death, they become frightened; his groans, his face and his convulsions increase the fear of people. Moreover, the dead body of near and dear one also enhances the fear of people. Death itself is not as dreadful as circumstances and funeral ceremonies are. Thus, it is not death but its concept, which is horrible. Furthermore, Sir Francis Bacon believes that anyone can overpower the fear of death. However, he should have the wish to do so. If he has, he can control his fear. Even the feeblest desire of a person subdues the fear of death.

Who are the Fearless People?
Sir Francis Bacon has prepared a list of people, who do not afraid of death. Even they deliberately pursue death. Here is the list of those people.

A person who wants revenge has no fear of death. Even if he knows that his enemy would kill him. What he wants is just revenge.
Passionate lover; he can die for his beloved.
A man of honor; he can die to protect his honor.
Downtrodden man (a sufferer); he would prefer death to sufferings.
Bacon has also quoted an incident of Roman Emperor Otho, who committed suicide. His followers also killed themselves because they were his true supporters. Afterwards, the author again refers Seneca, who says that a person may commit suicide if he is fed up from life. Similarly, due to boredom and feelings of monotony, a person may kill himself.

Some Brave Men from the History:
Sir Francis Bacon then mentions those people who do not afraid of death, even when it approaches them. Here is the list of those people who remained calmed at the time of death.

Augustus Caesar, Roman Emperor; he was so calm that he gave a compliment to his wife.
Tiberius, Roman Emperor; died during maintaining up appearances. His death was fearless.
Vespasian, Roman Emperor; he said, he was going to be a god and died.
Galba, Roman Emperor; he was killed. He died gladly for the welfare of his people.
Septimius Severus, Roman Emperor was curious to die after realizing that death is approaching him.
Numerous similar examples are there in the world when people died gladly.

Should we afraid of death: Suggestions of Sir Francis Bacon:
Sir Francis Bacon supports the opinion of Juvenal, a Roman writer, who has said that we should not afraid of death. It is natural; it is certain. When a person came into the world, he bore pain; the same pain which the elders go through at the time of death. Bacon does not support the concept of preparing for death. In Athens, Stoics used to prepare for death. Bacon is of the view that it just increases the fear. A person, who remains busy in his works and suddenly dies, suffers less pain as compared to a person, who prepares for it. A person should concentrate on doing good deeds; if he does so, he would suffer less pain at the time of death.

The last example, which Bacon quotes, is of Simeon. He wished to see Christ and when he achieved his goal of seeing Christ, he happily died. Thus, everyone has goals in this world. If a person achieves them, he can gladly die.

Remarks of Sir Francis Bacon on Benefits of Death:
The first benefit of death, which Sir Francis Bacon, mentions is that people glorify good deeds of the dead. This custom is very common in every society. When a person dies, people appreciate him. However, in his life, fewer people talk about his good deeds. The second reason, which Bacon has mentioned is sarcastic. He says that when a person dies, his enemies do not feel jealous for him.

Conclusion of “Of Death” by Sir Francis Bacon:
Moto of the essay is very much clear. Sir Francis Bacon encourages his readers to accept death as a law of nature. Instead of being cowards and running away from death, people should become brave and feel its beauty. The author has a good knowledge of Roman history and Greeks philosophy. He makes references from ancient Roman history. He has also read philosophy of ancient Romans; therefore, he supports his depositions through examples and solid references. Latin phrases have also been illustrated in this essay. In short, the essay is highly optimistic, as death has been presented as a natural thing.

Colonialism in Heart of Darkness and Chinua Achebe

Colonialism in Heart of Darkness and Chinua Achebe

Joseph Conrad's novella, Heart of Darkness is considered to be a great work of art not only because it painfully portrays how brutally and unjustly the natives are treated in the African wilderness, but also because its treatment of colonialism is considered a cornerstone in the history of western fiction.

Colonialism refers to the enterprise by which a nation extends its authority over other territories; it is characterized by an unequal relationship between the colonists and the natives of a country. Colonists usually think that they are doing the country good by bringing civilization and enlightenment; however the result is atrocity and death. This is clearly portrayed in Heart of Darkness. One of the characters who exercises colonialism is Kurtz whose main purpose is extracting ivory from the land in whatever way he can. He is treated as a supernatural authority by the Africans who always seem to obey and listen to him carefully. Marlow indicates the Africans' obedience to Kurtz when he tells us, "He was not afraid of the natives; they would not stir till Mr. Kurtz gave the word. His ascendancy was extraordinary. The camps of these people surrounded the place, and the chiefs came every day to see him. They would crawl." (p. 131) Kurtz believes that everything in the wilderness belongs to him, as Marlow hears him say, "My Intended, my ivory, my station, my river, my…" (p. 116) Moreover, he thinks that there is nothing wrong with what he's doing; on the contrary, Kurtz believes that he's doing the right thing. His civilization mission and his philosophy regarding the natives are expressed in his report of which Marlow tells: "But it was a beautiful piece of writing. The opening paragraph, however, in the light of later information, strikes me now as ominous. He began with the argument that we whites, from the point of development we had arrived at, 'must necessarily appear to them [savages] in the nature of supernatural beings--we approach them with the might as of a deity,' and so on, and so on. By the simple exercise of our will we can exert a power for good practically unbounded,' etc., etc." (p. 118) Although Marlow is not a native, he finds himself obliged to be treated like one. In other words, he finds himself reacting in the very same way as the natives themselves to Kurtz's authority. "I did not betray Mr. Kurtz - it was ordered I should never betray him - it was written I should be loyal to the nightmare of my choice." (p. 141) It is interesting that Marlow refers to Kurtz as 'the nightmare'; it seems as if he is hypnotized by him and has no choice but to do as he is told. Moreover, the phrase, 'it was ordered' adds to the ambiguity of what Marlow is trying to say. He could have said, 'I was ordered' but he does not.

It is worth mentioning here that Heart of Darkness is a novel that is partially biographical. Conrad was obliged to seek employment with a Belgian company in Africa due to difficult labor conditions in 1889. Although he stayed for a short while in Africa, it was an experience that shattered his health and changed his world-view, while the moral degradation he witnessed in the Congo's economic exploitation disgusted him. A decade after this, he wrote Heart of Darkness, which is about his experience in Africa. What is really ironic is that in the book Joseph Conrad in Context, it is mentioned more than once that Conrad never got over his experience in Africa, as if other people in his place would not feel the same thing! So basically, Marlow seems to echo Conrad's own opinions in his novel.

Colonists are driven to exploit ivory at an insatiable rate without even bothering to think about the devastating effects on the natives. This is very clearly shown in the following quote: Marlow refers to the ivory merchants as a "devoted band" calling themselves "the Eldorado Exploring Expedition." He says "they were sworn to secrecy." They spoke the language of "sordid buccaneers: it was reckless without hardihood, greedy without audacity, and cruel without courage; there was not an atom of foresight or of serious intention in the whole batch of them, and they did not seem aware these things are wanted for the work of the world. To tear treasure out of the bowels of the land was their desire, with no more moral purpose at the back of it than there is in burglars breaking into a safe." (p. 87) In brief, what these colonizers were doing was purposeless, which in turn means that the consequences which were brought about as a result of their actions were also useless.

Furthermore, the colonists had a quasi divine authority to do as they pleased in the colonies; this is portrayed by the conversation between the uncle and the nephew, which was overheard by Marlow, "'Certainly,' grunted the other; 'get him hanged! Why not? Anything--anything can be done in this country. That's what I say; nobody here, you understand, here, can endanger your position. And why? You stand the climate--you outlast them all.'" (p. 91) Here, they are talking about hanging Kurtz's assistant and probably Kurtz himself, so that they can get Kurtz's possessions, including his ivory.

Colonialism is also explored in other parts of the novella, where the reader can see just how mercilessly and brutally the natives are treated by the colonizers. When Marlow is on a steamer with a Swedish captain, he describes how the natives, whom he sees on his way to the station, are being exploited and treated as mere beasts. All the natives are represented as being naked and horribly thin; they are never referred to as humans. They are forced to work under hard conditions, are given no clothes, and are left to starve: "A continuous noise of the rapids above hovered over this scene of inhabited devastation. A lot of people, mostly black and naked, moved about like ants. A jetty projected into the river. A blinding sunlight drowned all this at times in a sudden recrudescence of glare." (p. 63) When Marlow finally arrives at the station, he sees yet another traumatizing scene,

"A slight clinking behind me made me turn my head. Six black men advanced in a file, toiling up the path. They walked erect and slow, balancing small baskets full of earth on their heads, and the clink kept time with their footsteps. Black rags were wound round their loins, and the short ends behind waggled to and fro like tails. I could see every rib, the joints of their limbs were like knots in a rope; each had an iron collar on his neck, and all were connected together with a chain whose bights swung between them, rhythmically clinking… but these men could by no stretch of imagination be called enemies. They were called criminals, and the outraged law, like the bursting shells, had come to them, an insoluble mystery from the sea. All their meagre breasts panted together, the violently dilated nostrils quivered, the eyes stared stonily uphill. They passed me within six inches, without a glance, with that complete, deathlike indifference of unhappy savages. Behind this raw matter one of the reclaimed, the product of the new forces at work, strolled despondently, carrying a rifle by its middle. He had a uniform jacket with one button off." (p. 64)

When reading this passage, one cannot help but wonder, how could these poor natives possibly be criminals? They do every single thing they are told to do, without the least bit of complaining and yet, they are called criminals. The words 'tails,' 'collar,' 'breasts panted,' and 'dilated nostrils' immediately bring to the mind the image of dogs. And of course, we should not forget the colonizer, who is right behind them with a rifle, making sure that these men walk 'in a file,' 'without glancing' at Marlow, and only 'staring stonily uphill.' So not only are they compared to animals, but they are also expected to work like machines!

This is the main reason why Achebe does not accept Heart of Darkness, it is because he does not like the way African people are portrayed in it. Chinua Achebe, a Nigerian poet and novelist, was attracted to Conrad's Heart of Darkness as a child. However, in the 1970s, he changed his mind about it and until today, he continues to dismiss the novel. In his essay on Conrad's novel, Achebe attempts to explain why. He says that what Conrad is terribly worried about is the idea of kinship between him and the blacks, which is why he dehumanizes them. Contrasting with this is Edward Said's opinion that Conrad is exaggerating the imperialistic and the dehumanizing discrepancies so that we, as readers, are outraged at its injustice and therefore work out "solutions" for ourselves. In other words, Heart of Darkness is, according to Said, a self-referential novel. But still, Achebe has a strong point in saying that Conrad has dehumanized the Africans because Conrad seems to be obsessed with the words 'black' and 'darkness' since he associates them with the Africans and uses these words numerous times throughout his novel.

Convincingly Achebe believes that the most revealing passages in the novel are about people. He says that the following quote contains the meaning of Heart of Darkness, "… but what thrilled you was just the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar. Ugly. Yes, it was ugly enough …" If only the thought was thrilling, then what would knowing do to us?! It is this 'remote kinship' that seems to terrorize Conrad and is implied throughout the novel several times.

However, his passages about the natives or savages, as Conrad refers to them, seem a mere description of what they are and what they are going to do. His personal sentiments are never revealed. But the vocabulary he chooses and the way he describes the Africans force the reader to sympathize with them. However, there are parts in the novel where we can infer that Conrad, although not showing sympathy towards the savages, cannot bear looking at them. For example, when he sees the six men tied to each other with chains around their necks, he says, "My idea was to let that chain-gang get out of sight before I climbed the hill." And in another incident, he says, "The hurt nigger moaned feebly somewhere nearby, and then fetched a deep sigh that made me mend my pace away from there." Clearly, he was not strong enough to neither hear nor see these savages being treated mercilessly.

When Marlow arrives at the Central Station, he witnesses more of these atrocities towards the 'niggers.' The manager of the station is apparently an uncivilized person who is there only because he hasn't been ill, as Marlow tells us, "He had no genius for organizing, for initiative, or for order even. That was evident in such things as the deplorable state of the station. He had no learning, and no intelligence. His position had come to him--why? Perhaps because he was never ill . . . He had served three terms of three years out there…He was neither civil nor uncivil. He was quiet. He allowed his 'boy'--an overfed young negro from the coast--to treat the white men, under his very eyes, with provoking insolence." (p. 74)

One of Conrad's greatest fears that is implied in the novel is the possibility of the whites having 'distant kinship' with the blacks, and this is mentioned by Achebe. This explains why Marlow wasn't able to forget his African helmsman's look on his face just before he died, "And the intimate profundity of that look he gave me when he received his hurt remains to this day in my memory - like a claim of distant kinship affirmed in a supreme moment." Conrad's careful word choice of 'distant kinship' rather than 'brother,' for example, is cautiously observed by Achebe. He understands that Conrad is trying, as much as possible, to create layers between himself and the natives. Also, the words 'remains to this day in my memory,' are understood by Achebe as a negative connotation, as if this 'memory' continues to torture him to this very day. Achebe concludes from this that Conrad is a racist.

Moreover, Achebe states that Conrad has dehumanized Africans. But I do not agree with him on this point. My evidence to this can be seen in this quote, when Marlow who can be considered Conrad's mouthpiece at this instance says, "The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much." We can infer from this quote that Conrad was actually against the idea of Africans being treated the way they were. Also, according to Edward Said, Conrad, being a creature of his time, 'could not grant the natives their freedom, despite his severe critique of the imperialism that enslaved them.' In other words, Conrad was against this imperialism and he criticized it as well, but the era that he lived in made it impossible for him to do anything about it. In my opinion, it might be that Conrad never meant to dehumanize the Africans; it might be that the experience he was going through during his stay in Africa was so overwhelming to him that he could not or was not able to reveal his sympathy. Maybe he did not want to reveal anything at all in order to emphasize it being a part of its "darkness." After all, it is Conrad himself who chose to write his novel in an ambiguous and subtle way which leaves the reader with puzzled thoughts about what exactly Conrad is trying to say. Almost everything in Heart of Darkness seems; everything is not is.

In conclusion, as we can see, examples of colonial acts are displayed throughout Heart of Darkness. Colonists take over the wilderness and practice exploitation only to acquire ivory. But at the same, the colonists' actions are purposeless, such as when they order the natives to aimlessly blast the railway when there is actually nothing to blast. This brings about the failure of their exploitation and civilizing mission.

Aristotle's Consideration of Tragedy as Superior to an Epic

Aristotle's Consideration of Tragedy as Superior to an Epic
To Aristotle, an Epic is a narrative poem written in heroic hexa-metre. It has four constituent parts namely plot , character, thought, & diction. Aristotle defines every point in much detail & finally, having compared between tragedy & epic, comes to the conclusion that a tragedy is superior to an epic.
According to Aristotle, the plots of epics should be dramatically constructed like those of tragedies. They should centre upon a single action whole & complete & having a beginning, middle & an end. Nor should epics be constructed like the common run of histories. The aim of history is to focus on a single period, while the task of an epic is to focus on a single action that is required. In this respect, Aristotle appreciates the greatness of Homer beyond all other poets. Though the Trojan War had a beginning & a war, Homer didn't attempt to put the whole of it to 'The Iliad'. As whole would have been too vast a theme to be easily embraced by a single view. Homer has selected one part of the story & has introduced mant incidents from other parts as episodes in order to give the poem a touch of variety. Other epic like the authors of 'Cypria' & 'The Little Iliad' have used many separate incident in their works.
Thus, while only one tragedy could be made out of the 'Iliad' & the ‘Odyssey’. Several might be made out of the 'Cypria' & more than eight out of the 'Little Iliad’. Again epic poetry must divide into the same type as tragedy; it must me simple or complex or ethical or pathetic, & its thoughts & diction should be as artistic as they are in tragedy. The best models,again,supplied by Homer. His 'Iliad' is at once simple & pathetic & ‘Odyssey’, complex & ethical. Moreover,in diction & thought, they surpass all other poems. The epic, like tragedy, requires reversals of the situation, recognition & scenes of suffering.
Epic can be greater in length than tragedy. Unlike tragedy, an epic action should have no limit in time. It is the special advantage of epic that it may be of considerable length. In tragedy, it isn't possible to represent several parts of the story as taking palce simultaneously. Epic poetry, on the contrary, is able to represent several incidents that are taking place simultaneously. And if these incidents are relevant, they increase the gravity of the poems & also relieve the poems of monotony & dullness.
Epic represents the life of an entire period & relates an action concerning the fortunes or destiny of a nation.
The marvellous has a function in epic . The irrational on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects,has a wider scope in epic poetry because there the persons' acting ain't visible. The pursuit of Hector by Achilles in Homer's 'The Ilaid' before the Greeks, standing still & watching the scene with passive interest, would be simply laughable on the stage, whereas in the epic the absurdity passes unnoticed.
In the final chapter of poetics Aristotle raises the question whether the epic or the tragic drama is the higher form of imitation. According to him , the better form of art is less vulgar & the less vulgar is always that which is designed to appeal to the better type of audience . Now it's obvious that the form that appeals everyone is extremely vulgar. Thus epic is said to appeal to cultivated readers who don't need the help of visible forms, while tragedy appeals to meaner minds. If ,then, it is a vulgar art, it is obviously inferior to epic.
But this accusation can be defended by saying that the tragic drama can achieve its end without the help of action. Like epics, the quality of a tragic drama can be staged, while tragic drama can be staged as well as recited. Moreover, the disadvantage that tragic drama appeals to meaner minds can be compensated by the other respects in which tragedy is definitely superior.
The second accusation inherent to tragedy is that when the performers act on the stage ,they sometimes do a great deal of unnecessary movements. The performers can't act the parts of respectable women.
The flute players can't do their job properly. And the older actors always criticize the younger.But this kind of arguing is a criticism of acting, not of poetry , for it is also possible for a bard to exaggerate his gestures while reciting, & for a singer too.
The tragic drama is also superior because it has all the epic elements, while epic doesn't have all the elements of tragedy. Tragic drama may even employ the epic metre ,& it has the additional attraction of music & spectacular effects which are the sources of distinct feeling of pleasure. Then the effect is as vivid when a play is need as when it is acted.
Aristotle is a teleologian, the upholder of the theory that everything has a purpose to fulfill. The purpose of a poetic imitation is to give pleasure. In this respect, tragic drama achieves its ends in shorter compass, and what is more compact gives more pleasure than what is extended over a long period . For example, if the play 'Oedipus Rex' by Sophocles was cast in a form as long as the epic ''The Iliad' , the effect of the play would greatly be diminished. An epic has less unity than a tragedy. An epic can furnish subject for several tragedies & this shows that , then, is less unity in an epic poem.

Concluding his discussion Aristotle says that if tragedy is superior to epic in all these respects , it fulfills its artistic function in achieving its end better than epic. It must be the better form of art & also fulfilling its artistic function then, obviously, in achieving its ends better than epic; it must be the better form.

Sense of Disillusionment of Life in Thomas Hardy's 'The Return of the Native

Sense of Disillusionment of Life in Thomas Hardy's 'The Return of the Native'
☘️🌿🍁🍁🍁👇💐
Thomas Hardy has a very pessimistic philosophy of life and his characters also suffer from the disillusionment of their lives. He shows man lives in an indifferent world. The Return of the Native is based on the assumption that man is destined by God to suffer the overwhelming pain and suffering which exits in the world.

All the main characters of The Return of the Native namely- Clym, Eustacis, Wildeve, and Mrs Yeoright have their own aim ambition. But all their plans turn into vain. All of their lives are full of aim. But they are trapped in a series of bitterly ironic events. They are faced with an incomprehensible universe.

The protagonist of the novel, Clym at an early age have been sent to Budmouth and from where he had gone to Paris. In Paris he had placed in trade and he had rise to the position of a manager of a diamond-merchant’s establishment. He is a boy of whom something is always expected. He feels that he has to use his services for the people in Egdon Heath. In order to be of some service to the people, he wants to start a school. His misfortune, semi blindness disables him from executing the educational project.

In his love affair also he was not successful. Clym is very much attracted by the charm and beauty of Eustacia. Ignoring his mother’s strong opposition he takes a cottage at Alderworth, several miles away from Blooms-End. But the utter incompatibility of temperaments had foredoomed their marriage.

The heroine of the novel, Eustacia was fully aware of the beauty, which nature has bestowed upon her. She didn’t care about what people may tell about her. She can’t bear the loneliness that heath has. She says, “Tis my cross, my shame and will be my death”. Eustacia dreamed of a life in Paris. She hopes that if she marries, Clym he may take her to Paris. She has fascination for the pompous city life. But Clym on the other hand wants to settle in Edgon. So she had to stay in Heath. In the later part of the novel she tries to escape from the Edgon Heath with the help of Wildeve. Coincidentally Clym writes Eustacia a letter begging her to return to him - but he sends the letter too late. Eustacia does not see the letter before she leaves to flee with Wildeve. If she had, she might have no die like this.

Mrs Yeobright, the mother of Clym, is a woman of middle age with well-formed feature. She vehemently opposes the plans of Clym to start a school. She wants Clym to go back in Paris because there he has a respectable job. She had brought up her with great care and devotion. She also strongly opposes not to marry Eustacia. She says, “Is it best for you to injure your prospects for such a voluptuous, idle woman as that?” But nothing could restrict her son from staying in the Heath or marrying Eustacia.

She was shocked, for example, by the sight off her son dressed as a furze cutter. She could not believe her eyes. She had thought it was only a diversion or hobby for him.

Again she resolves to reconcile with her son. But she never gets the chance to reconcile with her son and she dies.

Wildeve

Though Wildeve is depicted as a demon here but still he is also the portrayal of disillusionment. In the beginning of the novel, Wildeve responses quickly to Eustacia’s signal fire. It is true that he wishes to marry her. But he could not. And in the later part of the novel he unhesitatingly leaps into the stream with all his clothes on to try to rescue Eustacia. But in this time also he fails and dies.

Analyzing all the above discussed characters we can say that man is thus posited to be the source of the cosmic but the cosmic is considered to be too complex for human understanding.

Canto

Canto.

The canto (Italian pronunciation: [ˈkanto]) is a principal form of division in medieval and modern long poetry. The word canto is derived from the Italian word for "song" or "singing", which comes from the Latin cantus, "song", from the infinitive verb canere, "to sing".

🌿👉🏼What is a Canto in poetry?
Definition of Canto. Canto is a subdivision or part in a narrative or epic poem, consisting of five or more lines such, as a stanza, which could also be a canto. ... The Italian poets Dante, Matteo Boiardo, and Ludovico used cantos to divide their poems into shorter sections for thematic understanding.

👉🏼Canto is used as an introduction to a poem, as well as serves as a unitary prologue to an entire epic. It also enables the reader to understand different turning points in the poem. The use of canto divides episodes in a poem to make it easier for the reader to understand.