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MA ENGLISH LITERATURE

Saturday, 30 September 2017

Morphemes and Phonemes"

Topic:  "Morphemes and Phonemes"

(A) Morpheme
Morphemes are the smallest units of
meaning in a language.
  addition, morphemes are
related to the meaning and structure of
the language while phoneme is related
to the sound and pronunciation of the
language.

Morphemes can be classified
into two categories as
(1) Free Morphemes
and
(2) Bound Morphemes.

(1) Free morphemes are the morphemes
that can stand alone, with a specific
meaning. Therefore, free morphemes
act as words.

Some examples for free
morphemes include dog, cow, dish, yes,
ship, event, run, eat etc. However keep
in mind that, not all free morphemes
can be considered as words.

(2) Bound morphemes are the morphemes
that cannot stand alone. They appear
only as parts of words, and when used
alone, they do not have a meaning.
Most bound morphemes in the English
are affixes. They can be used before or
after the base word.(Base or a root is a
morpheme in a word that gives the
word its principle meaning.) The affixes
that come before a base are called
prefixes. The affixes that come after a
base are called suffixes.
Examples:
Prefix: un happy, postpone,
dis believe
Suffix: happily, kind ness,
believable

(B) Phonemes are the
smallest units of sound in a language. In
Chinese, each phoneme corresponds to a
morpheme and each morpheme corresponds
to a morpheme.
For example, in English we have the word
"cat." "Cat" is a complete idea, and it
cannot be broken down into smaller ideas
based upon the word. "Cat" is also a
complete sound. While each letter in "cat"
corresponds to a specific sound, separately
they are not complete. Every character in
Chinese represents a single morpheme and
has a corresponding phoneme very similar to
the word "cat".
On the other hand, English has many cases
where more than one phoneme is
corresponds to a single morpheme. For
instance, in telephone there are two
morphemes: tele and phone. In the same
word there are seven phonemes:
t, e, l, e, f,
o, and n.

Here Given below are some terms that are useful in
studying phonemes.

(1) Allophones: One of a set of multiple
possible spoken sounds or signs used
to pronounce a single phoneme in a
particular language. This implies that a
phoneme can have more than one
sound.

(2) Minimal pair: Pair of words or phrases
in a particular language that differ in
only one phonological element such as
phoneme. For example, pin and bin,
Phonemes can be further classified as
vowel phonemes and consonant
phonemes. Some examples of vowel
phonemes include
/e/ – peg, bread
/ear/ – fear, here
/ ue/ -moon, tone
Some examples for consonant
phonemes include
/ch/ – chip, watch
/p/ – pit, pin

"Note"
that phonemes are always written
inside slashes.
"Difference Between Morpheme
and Phoneme"

Definition
Morpheme is the smallest grammatical
and meaningful unit in a language.

Phoneme is the smallest contrastive
unit in the sound system of a language.

Study
Morpheme is studied in morphology

Phoneme is studied in phonology.

Words
Morpheme can be a word.

Phonemes make words, but one
phoneme cannot make a word.

Relation
Morpheme is related to the meaning
and structure of the language.

Phoneme is related to the sound and
pronunciation of the language.

Friday, 29 September 2017

Modern_Drama

...............#Modern_Drama...............

                  After the death of Shakespeare and his contemporaries drama in England suffered a decline for about two centuries. Even Congreve in the seventeenth, and Sheridan and Goldsmith in the eighteenth, could not restore drama to the position it held during the Elizabethan Age. It was revived, however, in the last decade of the nineteenth century, and then there appeared dramatists who have now given it a respectable place in English literature.
Two important factors were responsible for the revival of drama in 1890’s. One was the influence of Ibsen, the great Norwegian dramatist, under which the English dramatists like Bernard Shaw claimed the right to discuss serious social and moral problems in a calm, sensible way. The second was the cynical atmosphere prevailing at that time, which allowed men like Oscar Wilde to treat the moral assumptions of the great Victorian age with frivolity and make polite fun of their conventionality, prudishness or smugness. The first factor gave rise to the Comedy of Ideas or Purpose, while the second revived the Comedy of Manners or the Artificial Comedy.

  Under the influence of Ibsen the serious drama in England from 1890 onward ceased to deal with themes remote in time and place. He had taught men that the real drama must deal with human emotions, with things which are near and dear to ordinary men and women. The new dramatists thus gave up the melodramatic romanticism and pseudo-classical remoteness of their predecessors, and began to treat in their plays the actual English life, first of the aristocratic class, then of the middle class and finally of the labouring class. This treatment of actual life made the drama more and more a drama of ideas, which were for the most part, revolutionary, directed against past literary models, current social conventions and the prevailing morality of Victorian England. The new dramatists dealt mainly with the problems of sex, of labour and of youth, fighting against romantic love, capitalism and parental authority which were the characteristic features of Victorianism. The characters in their plays are constantly questioning, restless and dissatisfied. Youngmen struggle to throw off the trammels of Victorian prejudice. Following the example of Nora, the heroine in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, who leaves her dull domineering husband who seeks to crush her personality and keep her permanently in a childlike, irresponsible state, the young women in these plays join eagerly the Feminist movement and glory in a new-found liberty. Influenced by the philosophy of Schopenhauer and the psychological investigations of Freud, the new dramatists no longer held love or the relation between the sexes as something sacred or romantic as their forefathers did. They looked upon it as a biological phenomenon directed by Nature, or the ‘life force’ as Bernard Shaw calls it. Thus these dramatists introduced Nature and Life in drama, and loved to make them play their great parts on the stage.


     In the new drama of ideas, where a number of theories had to be propounded and explained, action became slow and frequently interrupted. Moreover, inner conflict was substituted for outer conflict, with the result that drama became quieter than the romantic drama of the previous years. The new researches in the field of psychology helped the dramatist in the study of the ‘soul’, for the expression of which they had to resort to symbols. By means of symbolism the dramatist could raise the dark and even sordid themes to artistic levels. The emphasis on the inner conflict led some of the modern dramatists to make their protagonists not men but unseen forces, thereby making wider and larger the sphere of drama.

        BIn the field of non-serious comedy there was a revival, in the twentieth century, of the Comedy of Manners. The modern period, to a great extent, is like the Augustan period, because of the return of the witty, satirical comedy which reached its climax in the hands of Congreve in 1700. Though this new comedy of manners is often purely fanciful and dependent for its effect upon pure wit, at times it becomes cynical and bitter when dealing with social problems. Mainly it is satirical because with the advancement of civilisation modern life has become artificial, and satire flourishes in a society which becomes over-civilised and loses touch with elemental conditions and primitive impulses.
The two important dramatists who took a predominant part in the revival of drama in the last decade of the nineteenth century were Geroge Bernard Shaw, and Oscar Wilde, both Irishmen. Shaw was the greatest practitioner of the Comedy of Idea, while Wilde that of the new Comedy of Manners.  Shaw, who was a great thinker, represented the Puritan side of the Anglo-Irish tradition. Wilde, on the other hand, lived a life of luxury and frivolity, was not a deep thinker as Shaw was; and his attitude to life was essentially a playful one.


      The success of Oscar Wilde as a writer of artificial comedy or the comedy of manners was mainly due to his being a social entertainer, and it is mainly as ‘entertainments’ that his plays have survived. Wilde may be considered, therefore, as the father of the comedy of pure entertainment as Shaw is the father of the Comedy of Ideas. Other modern writers who have followed Wilde directly are Somerset Maugham and Noel Coward. But the artificial comedy of the last fifty years in England does not compare well with the artificial comedy of the Restoration. The reason is that in the twentieth century there is a lot of confusion and scepticism about social values, and for the production of a really successful artificial comedy the recognition and establishment of some high and genuine code of behaviour, which most people find it too hard to live up to, is essential. Moreover, social manners change so rapidly in the modern time, that the comedy of manners grows out of date more rapidly than any other type of drama. The same is the case with the modes of speech and attitudes to life which also undergo change in a decade. The result is that the appeal of such plays is not lasting, and many of them are no longer appreciated now though in their own day they were immensely successful and powerful.

        This is not the case with the comedy of ideas or social comedy. George Bernard Shaw, the father of the comedy of ideas, was a genius. His intellectual equipment was far greater than that of any of his contemporaries. He alone had understood the greatness of Ibsen, and he decided that like Ibsen’s his plays would also be the vehicles of ideas. But unlike Ibsen’s grim and serious temperament, Shaw’s was characterised by jest and verbal wit. He also had a genuine artistic gift for form, and he could not tolerate any clumsiness in construction. For this purpose he had studied every detail of theatrical workmanship. In each of his plays he presented a certain problem connected with modern life, and his characters discuss it thoroughly. In order to make his ideas still more explicit he added prefaces to his plays, in which he explored the theme more fully. The main burden of his plays is that the civilised man must either develop or perish. If he goes on with his cruelty, corruption and ineffectuality, ‘The Life Force’ or God would wipe him out of existence. Shaw laughed at and ridiculed even things which others respected or held sacred. What saved him from persecution as a rebel was his innate sense of humour which helped him to give a frivolous cover to whatever he said or wrote. Other modern dramatists who following the example of Bernard Shaw wrote comedies of ideas were Granville Barker, Galsworthy, James Birdie, Priestley, Sir James Barrie and John Masefield, but none of them attained the standard reached by Shaw.

         Besides the artificial comedy and the comedy of ideas, another type of drama was developed in England under the influence of the Irish Dramatic Movement whose originators were Lady Gregory and W. B. Yeats. The two important dramatists belonging to this movement are J. M. Synge and Sean O’Casey. There has been the revival of the Poetic Drama in the Twentieth century, whose most important practitioner is T. S. Eliot. Other modern dramatists who have also written poetic plays are Christopher Fry, Stephen Philips and Stephen Spender. Most of the poetic plays written in modern times have a religious theme, and they attempt to preach the doctrines of Christianity.

Chaucer art of characterization

Chaucer’s Art of Characterization

Characterization is the concept of creating characters in a piece of literature. It can be said without any doubt that the worth of every writer is judged from the delineation of his characters. Geoffrey Chaucer stands above head and shoulder of all other English writers in art of Characterization. His characters breathe, walk and talk as we do and their wishes and aspirations, their likes and dislikes are quite akin to men of “flesh and blood”. They are so universal in nature that we meet these characters daily in every society; therefore, they do not look unreal to us at all.

Chaucer’s Prologue is a picture-gallery. His pilgrims are like twenty-nine pictures hung on a wall. These pilgrims are from different walks of life. They are so carefully chosen that they represent the whole of the English society and fully reveal social, moral, material, commercial, romantic and chivalric trends prevailing in the society. He presents each of them with minute details about their dresses, physical features, habits, peculiarities of manner, speech etc.

Chaucer follows the methods common to all painters. He paints with words and not with a brush. He had the seeing-eye, the retentive memory and the judgment to select rightly. Many of his characters are drawn from his own acquaintances. For example, the host Hairy Bailey is drawn from an actual host known to Chaucer. Similarly, the Wife of Bath, and the Oxford Clerk are also drawn from individuals with whom he came in contact in his life. That is way his characters are life-like. They are living and breathing human beings having the force of reality. His picture-gallery is made up real men and women.

In many respects, Chaucer shows a marked preference for brilliant colours, both in dress and appearance. On entering his picture-gallery, one is at once impressed by the remarkable brightness of his portraits. For example, the gown of the Squire is embroidered,
as it were a meede
Al ful of fresshe floures, wyite and reede;

Similarly, the Friar is dressed all in green and the hose of the Wife of Bath is of fine scarlet red. The face of the Summoner is fiery red and the Miller has a reddish beard. The atmosphere of Chaucer's portrait-gallery is sunlit, bright and colourful.
In the portraits of the Prologue Chaucer excels the art of the painter. He has an advantage over the painter. He can make use of sounds which the artist with the brush cannot do. He hears the jingling of the bells of the Monk’s palfrey, notes the nasal tones of the Prioress, and the lisping of the Friar.

He highlights one set of character by presenting it as foil to another. The refined and delicate Prioress is contrasted with the coarse and broad-speaking Wife of Bath. His ecclesiastical characters represent the degeneration of the church and the corruption that had overtaken the clergy of the times. His Monk, the Friar, the Pardoner and the Summoner have all forgotten their duties. They have grown greedy and selfish and are given to all sorts of corrupt practices. They have been individualized by noting their personal peculiarities and oddities. For example, the Monk has been individualized by his eyes.
His eyen stepe and rollynge in his heed,
That seemed as a forneys of a leed;

Chaucer uses apt similes and metaphors to present his characters. His similes are always drawn from common, familiar and homely aspects of life and nature. His pictorial imagination constantly uses such imagery. He makes his characters gleam and glow as on a canvas. For example, the merry nature of the Squire is described in a single line by, saying that “he was as bright as is the month of May.” The brightness of the Friar’s eyes is his most peculiar feature and it is emphasized through an equally apt image:
His eyen twynkled in his heed aryght,
As doon the sterres in the frosty nyght.

Chaucer portrays his characters objectively and impartially. He is so broadminded that he shows his equal sympathy to all the characters, the just and the unjust, the pious and the sinner.
Chaucer’s characters are types as well as individuals: they are the symbols of some particular class, age group, or profession, but they also have their own peculiar traits, their own idiosyncrasies, their own ways of talking and doing things. Each of the twenty-nine pilgrims in the Prologue is morally and socially representative, but he is also an individual with marked peculiarities of his own. For example, his Knight is a typical Knight of his age representing the fast fading chivalry of the middle ages. But he is also an individual who, for his personal qualities, had been honoured in foreign lands above all other knights and who had been the guest of honour at many a feast. His son, the young Squire, represents the jollity of youth as well as the spirit of the rising chivalry of the times. He is not, like his father, interested so much in war and adventure as in singing and dancing and Jove-making. He is also an individual, who has a fondness for bright colours and fine apparel,
Embrouded was he,as it were a meede
Al ful of fresshe floures, wyite and reede;

Another worth mentioning about Chaucer's characterization is that he' has the gift of seeing the universal in the particular and he presents both these aspects of life in the picture of pilgrims. These pilgrims possess all those traits, humours and habits that characterize the men and women of all ages and nations in this world. They are not, of an age but of all ages, “They are timeless, creations on a time determined stage.” The Squire, the Monk, the Prioress, the Franklin, the Wife of Bath etc., may have changed their names, the title by which they are known, but they are all human beings having the same passions, desires and instincts as are common to humanity. All of us feel at home in their company, for we all recognize in them an element of our own selves.

His characters are not static: they constantly grow and develop like real men and women. They talk to each other, narrate their own tales, and comment on the tales told by others. They reveal a hundred aspects of their natures. They are shown to us as moving, acting, talking and disputing just like men of flesh and blood. In short, it can be said that there is nothing of the dreamer about Chaucer-nothing of the stern moralist and social reformer. Like Shakespeare, he makes it his business in The Canterbury Tales, to paint life as he sees it, and leaves other to draw the moral.

Thursday, 28 September 2017


Critical Comments on “Hyperion, A Fragment”: Book by Book

CRITICAL COMMENTS ON BOOK ONE
Three Divisions of Book I
The poem opens in in medias res (that is, in the middle of the story). Keats does not begin his poem from the very beginning. In other words, he does not go back to the origin of the conflict between the old gods (namely the Titans) and the new gods (namely the Olympians). He starts the poem at the point where the Titans have al­ready been defeated by the Olympians and have been dethroned.In other words, Keats plunges into the story at the point when the defeat­ed Titans, feeling grief-stricken on account of their dethronement, sit or lie in a state of listlessness or stupor or despair. Book I falls into three parts. The first part describes the grief of Saturn and of Thea, and their decision to join their fellow-Titans who have assembled in a cave among the rocks far away from where Saturn has been sitting silent and “quiet as a stone”. The second part dealswith the apprehensions and fears of the Titan Hyperion, the god of the sun, who is still the master of his empire and who yet retains his full authority over his realm. The third part of the poem contains Coelus’s exhorta­tions to Hyperion, and the latter’s departure for the earth to meet his fellow-gods, leaving the planet of the sun to be looked after by Coelus.

An Epic Poem: Its Exalted Theme and Exalted Style
Hyperion is an epic poem. An epic has always an exalted theme which is treated in an exalted style. Now the theme of Hyperion is the war between the Titans and the Olympians and the outcome of that war. The characters in this poem are supernatural beings. They are the displaced deities who had been governing the various forces of Nature, and the new deitieswho have taken their places. However, we do not meet any of the new deities either in Book Ior in Book II, and the only new deity, namely Apollo, who is introduced to us, appears in Book III. Books I and II deal wholly with the displaced gods. In any case, the poem does have an exalted theme. The manner in which Thea is described, for instance, shows that we are not dealing with human beings but with superhuman beings. By comparison with the goddess Thea, even the tall Amazon would have appeared to be a mere pigmy. Thea was such a huge and power­ful deity that she could have seized Achilles by his hair and twisted his neck; she could have stopped with one finger the revolving wheel to which Ixion had been tied; her face was as large as that of the Memphian Sphinx. Subsequently, Hyperion too is described in the same manner; he too is a god of gigantic proportions. But, although the gods have been described on a grand scale, their passions and feelings are similar to those of human beings. The style of the poem is exalted, too. The poem has been admired widely for the sublimity of its style and the solemnity of its blank verse.
Pathos, The Keynote of Book I
Pathos is the keynote of Book I. Most of the situations in Book I arouse our deepestsympathies for the sufferers who are gods and goddesses, no ordinary human beings, but who feel as wretched and miserable in their defeat as human beings would in theirs. Saturn sits silent with his right hand “nerveless, listless, dead, unsceptred”; and his “realmless eyes” are closed. This is a moving picture of the god who was once the ruler of the whole universe. Then there is the moving picture of Thea who comes to meet Saturn in his misery. She has one hand on that aching spot where beats the human heart; though an immortal, she is experiencing cruel pain. She speaks to Saturn some mourning words, telling him that she has brought no comfort for him. The pathos of the situation deepens when she reminds him that he has lost heaven, that he has lost the earth, and that he no longer has any authority over the ocean. “All the air is emptied of thine hoary majesty”, she says. When Saturn opens his eyes and speaks to Thea, his speech further stirs our sympathy for him. He laments the fact that he has been dethroned completely and that he has even lost his identity and his real self. He asks, in words which are poignant, whether it would be possible for him to regain his empire. He would like to know if he can find another chaos from which he may fashion another universe to govern. The account of the fears and apprehensions of Hyperion is another pathetic element in the poem. Hyperion feels deeply dejected by the ill-omens which he has witnessed; and he would like to know what his fate is going to be. He asks if he too is going to fall like Saturn and if he is going to be deprived of the comforts and peace of his “lucent empire”. He thinks that he might lose “the blaze, the splendour, and the symmetry”, and that he would then see only darkness, “death and darkness”.
The pathos of the situation of the Titans is brought out by Coelus when, addressing Hyperion, he says that his eldest son Saturn had been overthrown and that Saturn had appealed to him for his help but in vain because he (Coelus) was in no position to offer any help to any of his children. Coelus then asks if Hyperion too is threatened with a similar fate. Here are the relevant lines addressed by Coelus to Hyperion:
I saw my first-born tumbled from his throne!
To me his arms were spread, to me his voice
Found way from forth the thunders round his head!
Pale wox I, and in vapours hid my face.
Art thou, too, near such doom? (Lines 323-27)
The pathos of the speech made by Coelus becomes more keen when Coelus asks Hyperion to go down to the earth and do something for Saturn who is feeling miserable:
To the earth!
For there thou wilt find Saturn, and his woes.
The Feeling of Awe, Aroused in Our Minds
Another dominant emotion aroused by Book I is that of awe. A feeling of terror is created in our minds when we read the account of Hyperion entering his palace in a state of indignation:
He enter’d, but he enter’d full of wrath ;
His flaming robes stream’d out beyond his heels,
And gave a roar, as if of earthly fire,
That scar’d away the meek ethereal Hours
And made their dove-wings tremble. (Lines 213-17)
The feeling of terror in our minds is heightened when Hyperion declares that he would drive away Jove from his throne and reinstate Saturn:
No, by Tellus and her briny robes!
Over the fiery frontier of my realms
I will advance a terrible right arm
Shall scare that infant thunderer, rebel Jove,
And bid old Saturn take his throne again. (Lines 240-50)
Graphic Descriptive Passages, and Vivid Pictures
Book I illustrates also Keats’s descriptive powers. There is plenty of graphic description here. The most striking passage in this respect is the one in which the palace of Hyperion has been described. Hyperion’s bright palace is “bastioned with pyramids of glowing gold, and touched with shade of bronzed obelisks” This palace has many courts, arches, domes, and fiery galleries. The curtains in this palace are made of clouds supplied by Aurora, the goddess of the dawn. Keats gives us, indeed, an elaborate and impressive description of this palace. Equally graphic is the description of Hyperion rushing out of his palace to the eastern gates where “he breathed fierce breath against the sleepy portals, cleared them of heavy vapours, and burst them wide suddenly on the ocean’s chilly streams’“. This description continues with a reference to the planet of the sun, the orb of fire, spinning round m dark clouds and radiating its dazzling rays. Apart from these elaborate descriptions, we have a large number of brief but vivid pictures in this Book. At the very outset there is a striking picture of the silence and stillness prevailing around Saturn so that a leaf falling from a tree down to the ground remains where it has fallen, without moving in the least:
No stir of air was there,
Not so much life as on a summer’s day
Robs not one light seed from the feather’d grass,
But where the dead leaf fell, there did it rest. (Lines 7-10)
Another vivid picture is that of Saturn and Thea continuing to sit together, silent and still for one whole month, and looking like statues:
One moon, with alteration glow, had shed
Her silver seasons four upon the night,
And still these two were postured motionless,
Like natural sculpture in cathedral cavern;
The frozen God still counchant on the earth,
And the sad Goddess weeping at his feet. (Lines 83-88)
Another notable picture, equally vivid, is that of the various omens which frighten human beings. The ill-omens which Hyperion witnessed were, however, of a different kind. The omens in his case were not those which scare human beings:
Not at dog’s howl, or gloom-bird’s hated screech,
Or the familiar visiting of one
Upon the first toll of his passing-bell,
Or prophesyings of the midnight lamp. (Lines 171-74)
Similes, Extended Ones and Short Ones
There are some very striking similes too in this Book. A few of these similes are of an elaborate and extended kind, which are characteristic of an epic. Here is an example of the extended simile:
As when, upon a tranced summer-night,
Those green-rob’d senators of mighty woods,
Tali oaks, branch-charmed by the earnest stars,
Dream, and so dream all night without a stir,
Save from one gradual solitary gust
Which comes from the silence, and dies off,
As if the ebbing air had but one wave;
So came these words and went. (Lines 72-79)
There are a number of short similes also in this Book. The winged attendants of Hyperion standing in clusters are compared to anxious soldiers who gather on wide plains when an earthquake has shaken their fortresses and towers. The feeling of agony which creeps through Hyperion’s body gradually is compared to a lithe serpent, vast and muscular, moving slowly forward, with head and neck convulsed on account of over-strained might. Hyperion, plunging into the deep night, is compared to a diver plunging into the pearly seas.
Like to a diver in the pearly seas,
Foreward he stoop’d over the airy shore,
And plung’d all noiseless into the deep night. (Lines 355-58)
Each of these similes is a vivid picture as well.
CRITICAL COMMENTS ON BOOK TWO
Several Sections of Book II
While Book I is in the nature of an exposition, Book II develops both the argument and the action of the story, and is important in respect of characterization as well as ideas. This Book is divisible into several sections which may thus be identified:
(1) The opening lines contain a vivid description of the cave where the defeated Titans had taken shelter.
(2) This is followed by a description of the assembled gods themselves. Each of the gods is named and introduced to us briefly with reference to his or her principal feature or characteristic. Almost each of them is individualized.
(3) The arrival of Saturn and Thea at this cave is then described, with particular reference to Saturn’s mood of despondency which deepens as Saturn nears the cave.
(4) Saturn then delivers a speech to the assembled gods, expressing his puzzlement at their mood of hopelessness and despair in the face of their defeat. He seeks the opinion of Oceanus who is regarded by him as a thinker and philosopher and who should therefore be in a position to give some sound advice to Saturn in this common calamity.
(5) Oceanus, in his reply, says that the defeat which the Titans have suffered at the hands of the Olympians was inevitable and follows Nature’s law. He urges the defeated Titans, and especially Saturn, to reconcile themselves to their dethronement and to accept the inevitable.
(6) Then the goddess Clymene speaks. She gives to the Titans an account of her experience in the woods when she had heard a music which she had never heard before, a music which seemed to supersede all the melodies which had ever been heard in the universe before. She had fled from that music but had been chased by a sweet voice which had again and again uttered the name of Apollo, “the morning-bright Apollo”.
(7) Enceladus’s reaction to these two speeches, one by Oceanus and the other by Clymene, is then described. Enceladus is not in favour of submitting to the new powers, represented by Jove, which have now begun to rule the universe. He counsels the Titans to undertake to fight against the new gods in order to regain the realms which they have lost.
(8) Finally, in this Book, we have a description of the arrival of the radiant Hyperion who has come, in obedience to Coelus’s advice, to see with his own eyes the sad condition of his fellow-Titans in the cave and to help them regain their lost realms, if he can.
The Epic Strain
The epic strain of the poem continues in Book II. The gods and goddesses are still the characters with whom we are concerned. These gods and goodesses are now given a concrete and visible life, even though they are in a mood of despondency and are feeling lifeless. Most of the gods present are individualized by means of brief pictures of their visible symbols or characteristics, and some of them are further differentiated from one another by means of the speeches they make. A reference is made also to the gods who are absent either because they have been put into prisons or because they are wandering about aimlessly in the world at large. The description of the various gods and goddesses is awe-inspiring despite the fact that they are in a state of deep despair. It is noteworthy that, although the characters in the poem are supernatural beings, yet their feelings and emotions are similar to those of human beings. Sadness and hopelessness are the two dominant emotions which they all experience. But, besides these emotions, they also experience rage, fear, anxiety, revenge, remorse, and even hope (the hope of regaining their kingdoms). The style of Book II is as exalted as that of Book I.
The Concept of Evolutionary Progress in Oceanus’s Speech
Oceanus’s speech is one of the two most important passages in the entire poem, the other being the passage describing the deifica­tion of Apollo in Book III. Oceanus’s speech is the key to one of the dominant themes of the whole poem. Oceanus justifies the defeat of the Titans at the hands of the Olympians on the ground that the Olympians surpass the Titans in the same way as the Titans had surpassed the original chaos and the primeval darkness which the Titans had superseded. Oceanus tells his fellow-Titans that an endurance of all naked truths and the ability to accept the facts calmly represent the top of sovereignty. He wants them to understand that the law of Nature demands the supersession of the beautiful and strong by the more beautiful and the more strong. The eternal law, says Oceanus, is “that first in beauty should be first in might”. He tells Saturn that the latter was not the beginning and is not the end. Some of the more important lines from the speech of Saturn are worth quoting :
We fall by course of Nature’s law, not force
Of thunder, or of Jove. (Lines 181-82)
And first, as thou wast not the first of powers,
So art thou not the last; it cannot be:
Thou art not the beginning nor the end. (Lines 188-90)
O folly! For to bear all naked truths,
And to envisage circumstance, all calm,
That is the top of sovereignty. (Lines 203-5)
So on our heels a fresh perfection treads,
A power more strong in beauty, born of us
And fated to excel us, as we pass
In glory that old darkness. (Lines 21-2-15)
For ‘tis the eternal law
That first in beauty should be first in might:
Yea, by that law, another race may drive
Our conquerors to mourn as we do now. (Lines 228-31)
Oceanus’s speech contains the concept of evolutionary progress. The world can never remain the same. Change is the law of life. Good must give way to better; the strong must give way to the stronger; the beautiful must yield to the more beautiful. That is how the world has reached its present stage of development. If there were no change, there would be stagnation. In the political, social, and cultural worlds, as well as in the world of Nature and in the realms of animal life and plant life, change and develop­ment are inevitable and also desirable. Tennyson afterwards expressed this idea in one of his poems when he wrote: “The old order changeth yielding place to new.”
Graphic Descriptions and Vivid Pictures
Keats’s descriptive gift finds a striking illustration in this Book also. First of all, there is the graphic description of the cave where the defeated gods have taken shelter. It was a den where no light could shine on the tears of the Titans. It was a place where the Titans could not hear even their own groans because of “the solid roar of thunderous waterfalls.” It was a place where the rocks, touching each other’s tops, ‘‘made fit roofing to this nest of woe.” Then we have the description of the gods themselves. This description consists of a series of closely linked pictures of the individual gods and goddesses. There was, for instance, Creus whose ponderous iron mace lay by his side and who had shattered a rock with that weapon. There was Iapetus who held in his hand a dead serpent, with its forked tongue squeezed from its throat. Iapetus had strangled the serpent because it had failed to spit poison into the eyes of the victorious Jove. There was Cottus who lay prone, his chin uppermost, as though in pain. Near him was Asia who had cost her mother keener birth-pangs than any of her sons had caused her. Asia was seeing visions of her future glory, and was thinking of the temples which would be built in her honour in the tittles to come. Above all, there was the giant Enceladus, once tame and mild but now furious and wrathful. In his imagina­tion he was hurling mountains in the second war which, he thought, would be fought between the Titans and the new gods. And then, of course, there is the graph c description of the radiant personality of Hyperion who arrives to meet his fellow-gods. Like the previous description of Hyperion in all his splendour and glory, this descrip­tion too is very impressive. The radiance shed by Hyperion spreads all around him, making every place, every spot, every rock, every corner look bright. Here is part of this description conveying the radiance and splendour of the sun-god:
Till suddenly a splendour, like the morn,
Pervaded all the beetling gloomy steeps,
All the sad spaces of oblivion,
And every gulf, and every chasm old,
And every height, and every sullen depth,
Voiceless, or hoarse with loud tormented streams :
And all the everlasting cataracts,
And all the headlong torrents far and near,
Mantled before in darkness and huge shade,
Now saw the light and made it terrible.
It was Hyperion: (Lines 357-67)
Extended Similes, and Brief Similes
There are a number of notable similes in Book II as there were in Book I. Again we have both kinds of similes, of the extended kind which are typical of epic poetry, and the brief ones. Here is an extended simile, comparing the increased sadness of Saturn to that of a mortal man on approaching a mournful house:
As with us mortal men, the laden heart
Is persecuted more, and fever’d more,
When it is nighing to the mournful house
Where other hearts are sick of the same bruise ;
So Saturn, as he walk’d into the midst,
Felt faint, and would have sunk among the rest, (Lines 101-6)
The psychological truth contained in these lines is also noteworthy. Here is another extended simile:
There is a roaring in the bleak-grown pines
When Winter lifts his voice; there is a noise
Among immortals when a god gives sign,
With hushing finger, how he means to load
His tongue with the full weight of utterless thought,
With thunder, and with music, and with pomp:
Such noise is like the roar of bleak-grown pines;
Which, when it ceases in this mountain’d world,
No other sound succeeds; but ceasing here,
Among these fallen, Saturn’s voice therefrom
Grew up like organ, that begins, anew
Its strain, (Lines 116-27)
These lines, which contain a wonderful Nature-picture are intended to bring out a contrast rather than to establish a comparison, but the extended picture meant to emphasize the contrast is certainly remarkable. At the conclusion of the speech made by Clymene we are told that her voice at the end was drowned by the overwhelming roar of Enceladus just as a timid stream flowing slowly is ultimately lost in the ocean:
So far her voice flow’d on, like timorous brook
That, lingering along a pebbled coast,
Doth fear to meet the sea: but sea it met,
And shudder’d; for the overwhelming voice
Of huge Enceladus swallow’d it in wrath:
The ponderous syllables, like sullen waves
In the half-glutted hollows of reef-rocks,
Came booming thus, (Lines 300-7)
Each of these similes, as already pointed out, contains a vivid Nature-picture. Then there are the brief similes. The imprisoned gods, with their clenched teeth and “all their limbs locked up” are compared to “veins of metal, crampt and screwed”. Enceladus in his tame and mild state is compared to a ‘‘grazing oxunworried in the meads.” The melodies coming from Apollo and falling upon the ears of Clymene are compared to “pearl beads dropping suddenly from their string”. The shining hoary locks of Saturn are rompared to the bubbling foam around a ship when it sweeps into a bay at midnight.
CRITICAL COMMENTS ON BOOK THREE
An Abrupt Deviation from the Main Narrative
Book III is apparently an abrupt deviation from the main narrative which is now kept in abeyance, while Keats proceeds to develop a different theme The theme of Book [II is the process by which Apollo, a human being, is deified and transformed into a god. There is no doubt that, if Keats had continued with the poem and completed it, he would have depicted the conflict which would have inevitably taken place between Apollo and Hyperion, with Apollo gaining a victory over Hyperion and dethroning the only god of the previous generation who had not yet been displaced from his position. In that case Book III would have fallen into its proper place, and the whole poem would have presented a unified structure. As it is. Book HI seems to be a digression. The main narrative stands still, while Keats takes up a different subject altogether.
An Invocation to the Muse
The opening lines of Book III are an invocation to the Muse. Such invocations are permissible in epic poetry. From this invocation it seems that Keats would like to commemorate his brother Tom who had died after a long and lingering illness. Keats calls upon the Muse to leave the Titans to their woes and to turn to a “solitary sorrow”, meaning his own grief over his brother’s death. He asks the Muse to dwell upon a “lonely grief”, namely his own grief. But then he changes his mind and turns his attention to Apollo whom he describes as “the father of all verse”.
Vivid and Sensuous Imgery
The poet’s mood now changes from one of solemnity and sorrow to one of joy; and he is filled with poetic fervour at the thought of Apollo. He calls upon all Nature to put on a fresh glory because he is going to celebrate the greatness of Apollo. Keats would like every rose to glow intensely and to warm the air. He would like all the clouds to float in “voluptuous fleeces” over the hills. He would like all the shells lying on the sand or in the depths of the sea to turn crimson. He would like the maid to “blush keenly” as if she had been surprised by a warm kiss. The sensuous quality of these pictures is noteworthy. He then calls upon the island of Delos to rejoice because the poet is going to deal with Apollo:
Rejoice, O Delos, with thine olives green,
And poplars, and lawn-shading palms, and beech,
In which the Zephyr breathes the loudest song,
And hazels thick, dark-stemm’d beneath the shade:
Apollo is once more the golden theme! (Line 24-28)
The poet then goes on to give us a description of how Apollo issued forth from his bower, leaving his fair mother and his twin-sister asleep, and how, walking ankle-deep through the lilies of the valley, he reached the banks of a stream when the nightangale had just ceased its singing, when only a few stirs were left in the sky, and when the thrush had begun its serene singing. Then comes the follow­ing beautiful picture:
Throughout all the isle There was no covert, no retired cave
Unhaunted by the murmurous notice of waves,
Though scarcely heard in many a green recess, (Line 38-41)
The Deification[1] of Apollo
All this was the prelude. We then come to the real theme of Book III. As Apollo stands weeping on the banks of the stream, an awful goddess suddenly appears before him. This encounter between Apollo and the goddess, who is no other than Mnemosyne, is a crucial stage in the development and ripening of Apollo’s genius as a poet-singer. A first Apollo feels perplexed, not knowing who this goddess is. She confirms his vague feeling that he had dreamed of her and says that she had placed a golden lyre by his side when he was asleep She then informs him that it was from that instrument that he had been able to produce the wonderful music which the whole universe had heard with untiring ears. Next, she asks him the reason for his weeping. Apollo now suddenly realizes that this god­dess is Mnemosyne, and says that there is nothing that he can tell her because she knows everything about him. Now it is his turn to ask her certain questions. He would like to know why he is so unhappy, and he would like her to enlighten him about the nature of this universe, about the nature of the stars and the moon and about the nature of the divinity which governs this universe. He speaks of his “aching ignorance” which makes him miserable. The goddess, who has given up her allegiance to the old gods for the sake of this budding genius who is going to attain the maturity of his poetic powers, remains mute. But Apollo is now able to read a wondrous lesson” in her silent face. Her face reveals to Apollo the accumulated experience, knowledge, and wisdom of all the past ages. Having come into a possession of all that store of knowledge and experience visible in her face, Apollo feels that he is on the way to become a god. But, first, let us see what he reads in the face of this goddess:
Names, deeds, gray legends, dire events, rebellions,
Majesties, sovran voices, agonies,
Creations and destroyings, all at once
Pour into the wide hollows of my brain,
And deify me, as if some blithe wine
Or bright elixir peerless I had drunk,
And so become immortal,. . . . (Line 114-20)
Apollo’s whole body is now shaken by “wild commotions”. He seems like a man struggling at the gate of death, or like one who is taking leave of pale immortal death and, with a pang, dies into life.[2] Apollo goes through an agonizing experience at the end of which he shrieks with joy and ecstasy. He has now become a god.
The Allegorical Signifiance of Apollo’s Transformation
Now, this passage describing the transformation of Apollo from a mortal human being into an immortal god has to be studied at two levels. Firstly, Apollo will now be in a position to challenge the supremacy of Hyperion, the god of song and poetry, as well as the god of the sun, who still retains his empire while the other old gods have already been dethroned. The strife between a new god, Apollo, and the old god Hyperion, will end in Apollo’s triumph, so that the process of the dethronement of the old generation of gods will be completed. This would, of course, have been the direction which the poem would have taken if Keats had gone on with it in order to complete it. The underlying theme of the poem as a whole would then have been the concept of evolutionary progress of mankind in all fields of human life, as well as of the universe as a whole. That would have been, and still is, the symbolic significance of the poem if approached in an objective manner. But there is another level at which we can study Book III, and that is the subjective level. On the subjective level, Book III is an allegorical account of Keats’s view of his own development as a poet. If Apollo’s insight into the essentials of life makes a god of him, Keats’s sympathetic understanding of the realities of life makes a true poet of him. Keats, the poet, would no longer be satisfied with a world of imagination. He has come into contact with the stark reality of human life. The lingering death of his brother is one of the circumstances which have led to the deepening of his sensibilities. He would now like to write realistic poetry dealing with human sorrow and human suffering, and he would describe the wisdom which comes from human tragedies. Apollo’s encounter with Mnemosyne and his transfiguration are thus an allegorical representation of Keats’s emergence as a true poet, as a poet who would now deal with the truths of life and the reality of human suffering rather than try to escape from this actual world into a world of fancies.
No Lowering of the Emotional Pitch in Book III
Book III is written in the same epic style in which Books I and II had been written. There is no lowering of the emotional pitch. If anything, the pitch rises somewhat because the poet has now involved himself in the story which he had been writing. He has infused his own personality into that of Apollo, thus making his poem doubly interesting. Of course, we cannot go into the question of how Keats would have gone on with the poem in case he had decided to complete it. But this much is certain that the poem, apart from being an allegory of the concept of evolutionary progress, would also have been an allegory of his own mind and soul. In fact, the personal allegory is completed already, while the other allegory remained to be completed

Hyperion: Critique and Analysis/ Major Themes/ Human Sufferings in Hyperion/ Discuss “the agonies, the strife of human hearts.” In Hyperion


Hyperion: Critique and Analysis/ Major Themes/ Human Sufferings in Hyperion/ Discuss “the agonies, the strife of human hearts.” In Hyperion


Hyperion” is an uncompleted epic poem by John Keats. It is based on the Titans and Olympians, and tells of the despair of the former after their fall to the latter. Keats wrote the poem for about one year, when he gave it up as having “too many Miltonic inversions.” He was also nursing his brother Tom, who died in January of 1819 of tuberculosis. Hyperion relates the fall of the Titans, elemental energies of the world, and their replacement by newer gods. The Olympian gods, having superior knowledge and an understanding of humanity’s suffering, are the natural successors to the Titans.
Keats’s epic begins after the battle between the Titans and the Olympian gods, with the Titans already fallen. Hyperion, the sun god, is the Titans’ only hope for further resistance. The epic’s narrative, divided into three sections, concentrates on the dethronement of Hyperion and the ascension to power of Apollo, god of sun and poetry. Book I presents Saturn fallen and about to be replaced and Hyperion threatened within his empire. The succeeding events reveals the aftermath of the situation and the Titan’s acceptance of defeat after Oceanus’ speech. In Hyperion, the quality of Keats’s blank verse reached new heights, particularly in the opening scene between Thea and the fallen Saturn:
            “Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
            … Sat gray-hair’d Saturn, quiet as a stone”
Many themes introduced in the Hyperion are identifiable as those associated with Romanticism. Hyperion, which marks the exchange of the old powers for the new, addresses ideas about poetry, beauty, knowledge, and experience. Hyperion’s dominant themes address the nature of poetry and its relationship to humanity and the sublimity of human suffering the knowledge gained through it. The narrative suggests a thematic consideration of progress, particularly toward enlightenment and depictions of beauty, even as it evokes classical ideals found in Greek mythology. Visual and verbal representations, in the use of language and of Greek sculptural forms, contribute to this exploration. Through his representation of gods, Keats’s commentary on Romantic opposites includes the real and ideal, history versus myth, finite versus infinite. The theme of truth is also prevalent. The speech of Oceanus and the ascension of Apollo both point to Hyperion’s concern with truth and its relationship with beauty, knowledge, and suffering. Truth is closely associated with knowledge and both are acquired through pain, which results from the understanding and acceptance of change and impermanence. However painful, truth is pure and beautiful, and what is beautiful is eternal. It is this honorable truth that the human spirit strives to attain. That is why Keats calls Hyperion:
            “the agonies, the strife of human hearts”
The poem is tragic with most of the qualities of a tragedy. Oceanus is working as a chorus giving the poem’s moral and working as a mediator.  Keats says: All I hope is that I may not lose interest in human affairs. In his later poetry, the realm of Flora and Old Pan are gone. His early poems were sensuous, but later he became aware of human sufferings. He thought that poetry of escape is not the real poetry. Real poetry deals with human beings. The function of poetry according to Keats is a friend to soothe the cares of man and lift up his thought. In the poems, gods have been given human qualities symbolizing sufferings of man. Gods are huge and Titanic, but have been given human characteristics effectively and realistically. Saturn’s misery, Thea’s stature all perfect human as exemplified in the line, ‘I have no comfort for thee, no, not one’. Keats has humanized the gods to reveal human sufferings as frther in Saturn’s speech:
            “Who had power
            To make me desolate? Whence came the strength?”
For Saturn, dethronement is a question of identity as Napoleon or any human being, may be Nawaz Sharif or Musharraf, could have felt. Thea’s reassurance to Saturn is a typical human activity. The suffering of Titans is the collected suffering of humanity at large.  Hyperion is a militant whose spirit is dampened by danger. So Keats, unlike other poems, has human concern in this poem. The Confidence with Saturn reminds us of Duke in “My Last Duchess” by Browning as “I gave commands and all smiles stopped”. Saturn is like Milton’s Satan who doesn’t want to establish his own kingdom for sovereignty as much as to take revenge on God. So the gods are all humanized. This is also visible in the Hyperion’s apprehensions about his dethronement and mock-determinations.
            “I will advance a terrible right arm
            Shall scare that infant thunderer, rebel Jove”
He has seen certain omens which indicate that his downfall may be imminent. Human beings feel apprehensive when they hear a dog howling or an owl screeching; and this god is feeling apprehensive because the wings of eagles darkened his palace and because the neighing of steeds has been heard which had never been heard before “by gods or wondering men”. The omens are different no doubt, but Hyperion’s reaction to the omens is the same as that of human beings is. And just as a human being might still resolve to fight against a coming danger, so Hyperion too says that he will use his terrible right arm. He feels most restless to think of the fate which might overtake him. But his restlessness is human restlessness under the pressure of a coming danger. Just as a wealthy man is afraid lest he should become bankrupt, so Hyperion is afraid lest he should lose his ‘‘lucent empire”. Just as a wealthy man is afraid lest he should be deprived of all his gains, so Hyperion is afraid lest he should lose “the blaze, the splendour, and the symmetry”. Hyperion is at this time like a fish out of water. Ha would like to begin the day sooner than usual, but the laws of Nature do not permit him to do that. He picks up courage only when his father whispers to him from somewhere in heaven and urges him to go and join his fellow-Titans on the earth; another human activity.
Keats suffered from the two experiences of entirely different nature: imagination and reality.  It is evident, then, that Keats was grappling with the problem of human suffering and with a human dilemma. He even suggests the simple formula: What cannot be cured must be endured. Human beings should face the facts squarely and calmly, and such a calm acceptance of realities shows not a defeatist mentality but a manly or even a divine frame of mind. Having arrived at this stage in his thinking, Keats went on to write the great odes in which his human concerns find a full utterance. Keats has like Apollo, acquired the tragic vision and become a great poet. Had he lived longer, he would have written even greater poetry and it would have been a poetry marked by profound thought, intense emotion, and a portrayal of the stern realities of human life.

Wednesday, 27 September 2017

Hyperion: A Fragment 1818 (1820)

Hyperion: A Fragment 1818 (1820)

Notes on Hyperion by John Keats

The Titans, usurped by the new Olympian Gods, mourn their lost empire. The still unfallen Hyperion continues his struggle, but must eventually accept defeat. He is replaces by Apollo, whose emergence into godhead is presided by Mnemosyne.

This unfinished poem in three books is based on the Greek myth of the defeat of the Titans. Under Saturn, the Titans, including Hyperion, a sun God, ruled the Universe. They were overthrown by the Olympians, led by three sons of Saturn: Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto. Hyperion was replaces by Apollo, who was also a sun God but had, in addition, particular associations with music and poetry. Keats sees in the myth a means to express faith in the idea of progress. Even the old gods must admit that their successors are more beautiful and therefore better fitted to rule.
Book 1 opens in media res with the deposed god Saturn mourning the loss of his empire to Jupiter. Thea, another of the Titans and sister/wife to Hyperion, attempts to comfort him, but, also despairing, she can only weep at his feet. Saturn rouses himself to renewed resistance and is led by Thea to where the other fallen Titans are assembled. The second part of Book 1 focuses on Hyperion, still unvanquished and defiant but apprehensive and suffering from premonitions of death and disaster, preparing to go to the aid of Saturn.
Book 2 describes the council of the deposed Titans, as they attempt to come to terms with their new powerlessness, Saturn arrives, guided by Thea, and opens the debate. The speech given by Oceanus is the most positive; he urges his fellow Titans to come to terms with change as an inevitable part of the natual process, and ends by praising the beauty of his own supplanter, the new god of the seas, Neptune, Clymene, a sea nymph, supports Oceanus. Her lament declares the uselessness of philosophical arguments in dispelling grief, but also comforts Oceanus's wisdom when she describes the beautiful music with which the earth greeted the arival of Apollo, the new god of song. Enceladus does not agree and urges them all to challenge the enemy, reminding them that Hyperion is still unfallen. Hyperion himself arrives, but he has now accepted defeat.
The brief, fragmentary Book 3 describes the valley where Apollo, who will be the new sun god, is coming into his powers. Mnemosyne, herself a Titan, the goddess of memory and mother of the nine Muses, presides over the initiation ceremony. Apollo, whose poetic associations are emphasised by his possession of a lyre, reads a 'wondrous lesson' (book 3, line 112) in her face, and 'Knowledge enormous' (Book 3, line 113) transforms him into a god. Book 3 breaks off with his assumption of godhead. Hyperion invites comparisons with Paradise Lost by presenting another epic version of the Fall in Miltonic blank verse. Similarities can be seen in both the epic theme and the structure - including the opening in media res, with the Titans already fallen - and in specific scenes: the council of the defeated Titans in Book 1, for example, echoes Milton's description of the fallan angels in Hell. But while Milton is concerned with the fall and redemption of humankind, Keats is more interested in a cyclic process in improvement prompted by aesthetic vision, the replacement of a somewhat rigid divine dispensation by a more natural and humane order.
Compare the style of Hyperion with the earlier Endymion, and consider how the new, leaner, harder language is more appropriate for Keats's engagement with the world of power struggles. The luxuriant diction and pleasurable sense of wandering in Endymion is replaced by terse and disciplined language in Hyperion, by grand and forceful diction, an emphatic sense of action, of movement towards a particular climactic moment. Numerous action verbs drive the narrative onwards, suggesting the relentless movement from old to new order, from Hyperion to Apollo.
Compare the way in which these old and new orders are represented. Analyse the effect of the numerous negatives and the emphasis on deathly silence and stillness with which Hyperion begins. How often, throughout the poem, are negatives and stillness associated with the Titans? Although the poem is generally written in lofty and grave verse, there is an abrupt change in the tone at the beginning of Book 3 with the introduction of Apollo. Epic stateliness is replaced with the return to the lusher style and imagery of Endymion. The contrast between the old gods and the new is emphasised by the differences in landscape and style between the austere scene where the Titans gather in Book 2, and the valley in which Apollo becomes immortal in Book 3. The dark, craggy, barren landscape and the sonorous, weighty cadences of the former are replaces by a luxuriant, sensuous, glowing world and much lighter, lilting rhythms before the more measured, grander style returns with Apollo's assumption of godhead.
The poem is full of images of measure, unease and diminishment, rising and falling. Keats uses, for example, varying intensities of light to suggest dynastic revolution. What happens to the radiance and brilliance of the 'bright Titan' (Book 1, line 299) Hyperion? What are the main changes in the world now the Olympians are in ascendance? It has been said that Hyperion is both a gigantic elegy and a hymn to the future, that although Keats is primarily concerned with evolutionary progress, his sympathies are still engaged by the spectacle of fallen greatness. Is there any specific evidence that the poem is both elegiac and forward looking?
Hyperion has also been described as a poem which seeks to assert the authority of a poet and explores the role of the poet in relation to history. How is Apollo associated with poetic power and in what way does he become a type of the negatively capable poet? What is the lesson he reads in Mnemosyne's face? It is through 'knowledge enormous' that Apollo becomes a god, and this knowledge seems to be primarily of suffering. How might the aquisition of such knowledge be related to both a widened and deepened human consciousness and to poetic power? If Apollo represents some kind of new creative force, why is Saturn now rendered impotent? 'But cannot I create? / Cannot I form?' (Book 1, lines 141-2)

Phonetics vs. Phonology

#Linguistics#                                            Phonetics vs. Phonology
1. Phonetics vs. phonology
Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc.
2. Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns
The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.
At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or /tr/ are not (they are ungrammatical).
/tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
/tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in Russian, but not in English or German.
3. A given sound have a different function or status in the sound patterns of different languages
For example, the glottal stop [] occurs in both English and Arabic BUT ...
In English, at the beginning of a word, [] is a just way of beginning vowels, and does not occur with consonants. In the middle or at the end of a word, [] is one possible pronunciation of /t/ in e.g. "pat" [pa].
In Arabic, // is a consonant sound like any other (/k/, /t/ or whatever): [íktib] "write!", [daíia] "minute (time)", [a] "right".
4. Phonemes and allophones, or sounds and their variants
The vowels in the English words "cool", "whose" and "moon" are all similar but slightly different. They are three variants or allophones of the /u/ phoneme. The different variants are dependent on the different contexts in which they occur. Likewise, the consonant phoneme /k/ has different variant pronunciations in different contexts. Compare:

keep
/kip/
The place of articulation is fronter in the mouth
[k+h]
cart
/kt/
The place of articulation is not so front in the mouth
[kh]
coot
/kut/
The place of articulation is backer, and the lips are rounded
[khw]
seek
/sik/
There is less aspiration than in initial position
[k`]
scoop
/skup/
There is no aspiration after /s/
[k]
These are all examples of variants according to position (contextual variants). There are also variants between speakers and dialects. For example, "toad" may be pronounced [tëUd] in high-register RP, [toUd] or [tod] in the North. All of them are different pronunciations of the same sequence of phonemes. But these differences can lead to confusion: [toUd] is "toad" in one dialect, but may be "told" in another.

5. Phonological systems
Phonology is not just (or even mainly) concerned with categories or objects (such as consonants, vowels, phonemes, allophones, etc.) but is also crucially about relations. For example, the English stops and fricatives can be grouped into related pairs which differ in voicing and (for the stops) aspiration:

Voiceless/aspirated
ph
th
kh
f
s

h
Voiced/unaspirated
b
d

v
z
ð

(unpaired)
Patterns lead to expectations: we expect the voiceless fricative [h] to be paired with a voiced [], but we do not find this sound as a distinctive phoneme in English. And in fact /h/ functions differently from the other voiceless fricatives (it has a different distribution in words etc.) So even though [h] is phonetically classed as a voiceless fricative, it is phonologically quite different from /f/, /s/, // and //.

Different patterns are found in other languages. In Classical Greek a three-way distinction was made between stops:

Voiceless/aspirated
ph
th
kh
Voiced/unaspirated
p
t
k
Voiced (and unaspirated)
b
d

In Hindi-Urdu a four-way pattern is found, at five places of articulation:

Voiceless aspirated
ph
th
h
ch
kh
Voiceless unaspirated
p
t

c
k
Voiced unaspirated
b
d
etc.

Breathy voiced ("voiced aspirates")
b
d
etc.

6. Shapes of vowel systems: some common examples:

Triangular:
(e.g. Arabic)
3 vowels
Triangular:
(e.g. Japanese)
5 vowels
i
u
i
u
e
o
a a
Triangular:
(e.g. Tübatulabal)
6 vowels
Triangular:
(e.g. Italian)
7 vowels
i

u
i
u
e
o
e
o

a a
Triangular:
(e.g. Bulgarian)
6 vowels
Rectangular:
(e.g. Montenegrin)
6 vowels
i
u
i
u
e

o
e
o
a
a

How many degrees of vowel height are there in Bulgarian? On the face of things, it appears to be not very different from Tübatulabal, which has three heights: three high vowels, two mid vowels and one low vowel. But if we look more closely into Bulgarian phonology, we see that the fact that schwa is similar in height to /e/ and /o/ is coincidental: the distinction that matters in Bulgarian is /i/ vs. /e/, /u/ vs. /o/ and // vs. /a/, i.e. relatively high vs. relatively low. As evidence for this statement, note that while all six vowels may occur in stressed syllables, only /i/, /e/, // and /u/ occur in unstressed syllables.
7. Phonology as interpretation of phonetic patterns: Fang (Bantu: Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea)

Fang English Fang English
1) etf- shoulder 7) tm branch
2) vbi,v-bi hippopotamus 8) bikq back teeth
3) ndv() dam 9) eln water tortoise
4) kf-l tortoise 10) fq bag
5) kf- salt 11) t neck
6) kl rope 12) osn squirrel
Vowels in corpus:

i
y
?u expected but not found
e o

a
Further reading
Lass, R. (1984) Phonology: an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge University Press.
Jakobson, R. (1962) The phonemic concept of distinctive features. In A. Sovijärvi and P. Aalto, eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Mouton & Co. 440-455.
Jakobson, R. and M. Halle (1956) Fundamentals of Language. Mouton.
Kelly, J. (1974) Close vowels in Fang. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 37, 119-123.


Hyperion”, An Epic of Beauty’s Triumph


First in Beauty Should Be First in Might
The fragmentary epic, Hyperion, is concerned chiefly with beauty. A war in heaven was the basis for the narrative which Keats had planned to write. An older race of gods known as the Titans had been overthrown by the younger Olympians.Hyperion, the sun-god, after whom the poem was named, had been visualized by Keats as the champion of the Titan cause because he was the only one of them yet undefeated when the poem begins. The main action of the poem would almost certainly have been the overthrow and supersession of Hyperion by the Olympian Apollo. The funda­mental theme, then, is the war which had taken place between two classes of gods. From the outset we find ourselves in the company of the defeated Titans, experiencing their bitter sorrow and asking their questions; and the centrality of beauty is asserted precisely here, because the only theatrical answer to the question why the older gods have suffered at the hands of the younger gods is that beauty should triumph and that in the present case it has actually triumphed. The victorious Olympians are more beautiful than the Titans; there is no more to be said on this point because “it is the eternal law that first in beauty should be first in might.” This one statement made by Oceanus not only puts beauty at the centre of the poem but interweaves it with pain by denning a metaphysic of suffering out of beauty’s triumph. To the riddle of the defeat of the Titans, the solution is that the less beautiful must be superseded and pushed into the background. In this poem Keats simultaneo­usly vindicates the beautiful and gives his explanation of the pain and suffering in this world. In his view the pain and suffering of the world are the price of beauty’s victory. The survival of the fittest is the tune to which creation dances; this constitutes the world’s outward drama and equally its inner sense. The greater or the fitter is one who is the more beautiful because Nature’s law is that first in beauty should be first in might.



The Problem of Suffering and Pain
The poem opens with a striking picture of Saturn sitting still and silent after his defeat. He is joined by the goddess Thea (who was the wife of Hyperion, the sun-god). She rouses Saturn from his stupor in order to stress his total discomfiture and to say that she has to offer no explanation of these recent events and that she has no comfort to offer either. “I have no comfort for thee, no, not one”, she pointedly says. In reply, Saturn asks her if his feeble shape is really his and if his voice is really his. In other words, through Saturn’s questioning, Keats raises the problem of human suffering (even though the questioner is a god). Thea only under­stands that disaster has befallen the Titans. Saturn only understands the pain of defeat. Both of them want to understand more; and Keats now sends them together to that sad place where Cybele and the bruised Titans sat in mourning. Some of the defeated Titans are then named and described, whereafter Saturn proceeds to address them. His speech goes deeper still into the sheer puzzle of pain. He puts it thus:
Not in my own sad breast,
Which is its own great judge and searcher out,
Can I find reason why ye should be thus: (II, 129-31)

At the end of his speech he turns to Oceanus whose “severe content”, which is the result of thought and musing, has surprised him and from whom he now seeks guidance.
Stoic Resignation to the Truth
It is Oceanus who, in his reply to Saturn’s question, urges his fellow-gods to see their Titanic woes as part of a process called beauty’s triumph. Whether the process justifies the pain involved is not easy to decide. Oceanus proclaims his message to be “the pain of truth”; but at the same time he asserts that those who take his message to be painful are foolish. The dominant note of the speech of Oceanus is Stoic resignation to the truth rather than welcome of it. He concludes with the following advice:
Receive this truth, and let it be your balm.
But there is no suggestion that pain can be transformed into something else. In other words, pain and suffering remain pain and suffering, and cannot undergo any mystic transformation. All that Oceanus can say is that the defeated gods have to suffer but that they are suffering in a good cause. So his mandate is that the suffe­rers must achieve calm and tranquility.
The Superior Beauty of the New Sea-God and of the New God of Music
Oceanus cites his own individual defeat as an illustration of the general principle which he has just laid down. He refers to the new Olympian god who has overthrown him. He speaks about the new god of the sea in ardent terms, praising the beauty and the glow of the new god. Oceanus was so impressed by the new god that he voluntarily relinquished his position as the sovereign of his empire and came away from his headquarters, so to speak. Follow­ing Oceanus, the goddess Clymene expresses her own sense of bewilderment but then goes on to speak of Apollo in the same eloquent and glowing terms in which Oceanus had spoken about his successor. Says she:
A voice came sweeter, sweeter than all tune,
And still it cried, “Apollo ! Young Apollo!”
I fled, it follow’d me, and cried “Apollo”! (II, 292-94)

Thus the reference to Apollo emphasizes a singing voice of the utmost beauty. And the beauty is, of course, the point, because the final triumph of beauty will be the triumph of Apollo; and in this way Oceanus’s assertion of the eternal law of Nature will be vindicated. No doubt, Enceladus, who speaks after Clymene, rejects both her opinion and the view of Oceanus. Enceladus describes Oceanus as “over-wise” and he describes Clymene as “over-foolish”. Enceladus speaks in a militant tone, and he relies on Hyperion to come to the rescue of the defeated Titans. But the event described in Book III, in which Apollo achieves his deification, clearly shows that Enceladus’s defiance and militancy would come to nothing, if the poem had been continued, it would have described the conflict between Hyperion and the new god Apollo, and it would have described the triumph of the latter who is more beautiful by virtue of his music and melody the like of which had never before been heard in the universe.

Tuesday, 26 September 2017

Keats as a Writer of odes

Introduction
Originally ode was a Greek form of verse, but odes have been written in Latin Poetry also. It meant a poetic composition written to be sung to the music of lyre. So it is known as lyrical in character. But when ode form came into the hands of the English writers, the idea of Music was considered to be essential and it became a type of lyric poem only. Thus in the context of English poetry, ode can be defined as a lyrical poem which expresses exalted or enthusiastic emotion in respect of a theme which is dignified and it does so in a metrical form.
Characteristics of an Ode
Following are the characteristics of an ode.
(a) It is an address to an abstract object which means that it is written to and not written about.
(b) Ode is a natural and spontaneous overflow of the feelings of its writer.
(c) The ode must be highly serious in character due to its dignified theme.
(d) Its language and style should also be dignified and elevated.
(d) The ode must exhibit a very clear, logic in the development of thought of its writer.
(f) The ode can adopt any of the metres regular or irregular.
Keats’ Odes
John- Keats dwelt on various forms of writing. But none of them has given him as great success as the ode form. Therefore Keats is always remembered as a writer of odes, Again, Keats holds a leading rank among the ode writers of English literature.
Unity of impression
The first and foremost quality of his odes is their unity of impression. The major odes of Keats — “Ode to a Nightingale”, “Ode on a Grecian Urn” and “Ode to Autumn” Malancholy” have a common subject and theme. In all these odes the development of mood is more or less similar and the mood develops in a shape of drama, i.e. first the mood takes birth, it develops, reaches climax and finally the anticlimax takes place.
Ode to Nightingale
Now we study the dramatic development of Keats’s mood with reference to his odes. The very of opening stanza of “Ode to Nightingale” takes Keats in a mood of escape, He wants to escape from fever and fret of life. He longs for intoxicant, either a draught of vintage or “a beaker full of the warm sough to help him fade away into the form that is the nightingale’s abode. Foreign to the worries of life, he wants to share the joys of nightingale in his imagination. He wants to live in the world of “immortal bird” that was not born for death. He says; “thou was not born for death, oh Immortal bird.”
Ode on Grecian Urn
Similarly in “Ode on Grecian Urn”, Keats is fully aware that in real life, every thing is short lived and fleeting. But the urn which is the great piece of art gives him a sense of immortality. The pictures curved upon it are immortal because they are fresh and vigorous from centuries. In both these poems the fascinating clement for Keats in the world of imagination. As he says in “Ode on Grecian urn;” Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweater,
The other binding element between nightingale and urn is their permanence. The song of nightingale is immortal; similarity the art that produced the urn is also immortal.
Escape into the world of imagination takes the two poems to a point of climax but in the right tradition of dramatic development, the anti-climax takes place and this anticlimax brings Keats back to the world of reality. In the “Ode to Nightingale”, the world “Forlorn” and in “Ode on a Grecian Urn”, the Urn’s death brings Keats back into the world of man.
To Autumn and Ode on Melancholy
“To Autumn” can be read in the same light It depicts the theme of ripeness, decay and death in describing the natural cycle of seasons; Autumn winter, spring, summer. In “Ode on Melancholy” the throne of poem is that joys. and beauty are a source of human misery because they are short living. Thus WC have seen that there is a unifying force behind the great Odes of Keats.
We find that Keats undergoes various stages of development which a Shakespearean hero experiences. In the beginning he is in the position of Hamlet. He does not wish where to be or where not to be. “to be or riot be, that’s question. ” He continues to hang between the world of . reality and the world of imagination. But towards the end of his two odes, “Ode to a Nightingale and Ode on a Grecian Urn”, we find that Keats has developed himself up to Hamlet’s state of readiness as after his escape he is ready to accept the realities of life as they are. Keats did in odes o what Shakespeare had already done in dramas.
Keats’ Negative Capability
In short, when Ode form came to Keats it reached the height of perfection and subjectivity. It was primarily under the influence of Shakespeare’s negative capability that Keats came to adopt this form of verse. He wanted to attain that perfection in negative capability which Shakespeare had achieved in his dramas, but Keats found that instead of drama, Ode form of verse was best suited to his purpose.
Negative capability is a capacity to negate one’s individual self and to assume the very personality of the person whom the writer wants to portray. It is a capacity to be like water with no colour of its own, but capable of assuming any colour that is put into it. Keats has been able to acquire this negative capability in his Odes and this is his individual contribution to this form of verse.
His Style
The style of the odes is as unifying as their mood and theme. Every ode has the same perfection of language. He makes use of a beautiful vocabulary. Every word is as full of meaning as it is beautiful. The language is concise, exact and concentrated. The right word has been used at the right place. The technical excellence of odes is as great as their poetical. In his odes, – we has the best and finest of Keats which is also best and finest in his poetry. Keat’s odes, to sum up, are the best form of verse as far this genre is concerned. We may not find any other poet, a writer of odes, who can equal Keats in his cadence, rhythm and perfection as well as the sublimity of their themes.

LINGUISTICS PAST PAPERS

LINGUISTICS PAST PAPERS
1

Compare structuralism and functionalism while highlighting the prominent features of said linguistic movements. (2004)
How is human language different from animal communication? Discuss its characteristics. (2006)
Write a note that language is based on the culture and convention of the people who speak it. (2007)
What is Language? Discuss some of the characteristics of language. (2008)
‘Linguistics is the scientific study of language.’ Elaborate on the statement with your understanding of the study of language. (2009)
Discuss in detail the different branches of linguistics and their scope. (2010)
Identify those features of linguistics which qualify it to be classified as a ‘science’. (2011)
2
Write a detailed note on psycholinguistics. (2004)
Write a detailed note on psycholinguistics. (2006)
Write a note on psycholinguistics. (2007)
Write a detailed note on sociolinguistics. (2008)
Write a note on psycholinguistics. (2009)
Write a note on psycholinguistics. (2010)
Write a comprehensive note on Sociolinguistics and its significance. (2011)
3
Attempt both parts:
(a) Explain manners of articulation with examples.
(b) Transcribe the following pinpointing the primary stress:
Exclusion; Citation; Demonstrate; Appreciate; Avoid (2004)
Attempt both parts:
(a) Explain manners of articulation with examples.
(b) Identify voiceless consonants in the following words.
Left, Station, Vanished, Insurance, Cheque (2006)
Explain places and manners of articulation. Also tell how voicing takes place. (2007)
What are the weak forms? Explain them with the help of examples from RP. (2008)
Explain in detail the manner’s of articulation of English consonant sounds. (2009)
Write a detailed note on the places and manner of articulation of English consonant. (2010)
Discuss and describe the English consonants of RP in terms of their manner and place of articulation.
(2011)
4
(a) Discuss phrase structure grammar in detail
(b) Draw P-marker for the following sentence:
All students will study Linguistics. (2004)
(a) Why is TG the most influential theory of linguistics in modern theory of linguistics in modern
times? Discuss in detail.
(b) Draw a tree diagram of the following giving P-markers:
I am proud of the painting. (2006)
(a) What do you know about phase structure grammar? Discuss in detail.
(b) Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence giving P-markers:
The teacher marked him absent. (2007)
(a) Discuss in detail the IC analysis highlighting its main feature.
(b) Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence giving P-markers:
What is your name? (2008)
(a) What is I C analysis? Discuss its major flaws.
(b) Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence giving P-markers:
The young teacher taught the young and intelligent students. (2009)
(a) What is phrase structure grammar? In what ways is it an improvement on IC analysis? Discuss.
(b) Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence giving P-markers:
I quite quickly drew the picture.
OR
Give function labels and form labels for each of the words in the following sentence and also put
them in phrase brackets:
Our students are very intelligent. (2010)
(a) How is transformational generative grammar different from IC analysis and phrase structure
grammar? Explain with suitable examples.
(b) Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence giving P-marker:
They have been reading this book for three days. (2011)
5
Explain semantic field theory. (2004)
“The vocabulary of a language consists of many interrelating networks of relations between worlds.”
Discuss the above statement with reference to semantic field theory. (2006)
Discuss briefly the major semantic theories. (2007)
Write a detailed noted on componential analysis. (2008)
What is componential analysis? Explain with examples. (2009)
Discuss briefly the major semantic theories. (2010)
Discuss the major semantic theories. (2011)
6
Describe the concept of morph and discuss its different types with examples. (2004)
(a) How do you differentiate between inflectional and derivational morphology. Discuss giving
examples for each.
(b) List ‘the bound’ morphemes in the following words:
{No words were given in my copy of the paper} (2006)
Morphology is the study of the rules governing the internal structure of the words and the international
that exists among them. Discuss. (2007)
What do you know about structuralism? Discuss. (2008)
What contribution can the study of (a) language-acquisition and (b) pidgins and creoles make to
historical linguistics? (2009)
What did the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure contribute to the study of modern linguistics? Discuss.
(2010)
Briefly trace the growth of historical linguistics. (2011)
7
Write notes on any TWO of the following: (2008)
i- Historical linguistics
ii- English short vowels
iii- Code-switching
iv- Generative grammar
Write notes on TWO of the following: (2009)
i- Synchronic vs. diachronic point of view in linguistics
ii- Cardinal vowels
iii- Morphology
iv- Generativism
Write note on TWO of the following: (2010)
(i) Bilingualism
(ii) Language and culture
(iii) Morphology
(iv) Transcribe the following
(a) A cup of tea
(b) Bread and butter
(c) A fly in the ointment
(d) Grapes are sour
(e) Hand in glove with
Write notes on any TWO of the following: (2011)
i- Language acquisition
ii- Voicing
iii- Bilingualism
iv- Morphology
Write notes on TWO of the following:
i- Componential analysis
ii- Generativism
iii- Segmental phonology
iv- Comparative linguistics (2004)
Write notes on TWO of the following:
i- Language acquisition
ii- Language and culture
iii- Why study grammar (2006)
Write notes on TWO of the following:
i- Why study grammar?
ii- First language acquisition
iii- Code switching
iv- Historical linguistics
8
Transcribe the following words:
Are, cook, boil, no, now, chips, bead, out, ask, dress, trap, has