3 biography

2 HEART OF DARKNESS

1 HEART OF DAKNESS

Waiting_for_The_Godot Short Questions University_of_Sargodha

Waiting_for_The_Godot

Short_Questions

University_of_Sargodha

(i) When and where does the play 'Waiting for Godot' take place?
Ans. All the action takes place next to a tree on a country road, beginning on the evening of one day and ending on the evening of the next. The presence of the tree and a rock of some sort is apparently important, at least according to Beckett -- the setting, he says, is complete with animal, vegetable, and mineral.
(ii) Why is the play 'Waiting for Godot' in two acts?
Ans. "Waiting for Godot" appears to have been structured on sets of binaries. There are two messenger boys, two sets of characters and hence two acts. The two acts show two sides of the same character. Moreover, the two acts describe circular events which means the play could go on forever.
(iii) What is the basic difference between Act I and Act II of 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. "Waiting for Godot" has a circular structure. From Act I to Act II, there is no difference in either the setting or in the time. The basic difference between Act I and Act II is the reversal of fortune of Pozzo and Lucky. Whereas Pozzo was clearly the master and Lucky was his slave in Act I, in Act II Pozzo is blind and Lucky mute. They have become dependent on each other for survival.
(iv) What are the major themes of 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. Humour and the absurd, freedom and confinement, modernism and postmodernism, condition of the universe, devaluation of language, uncertainty of all knowledge, search for meaning, choices, truth, time, religion, friendship, hope and dependency are the major themes of "Waiting for Godot".
(v) What is the significance of Godot in the play 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. Beckett denies that Godot is "God". On the surface, Godot is a person for whom the characters are waiting, but who never arrives. In this play, Godot represents a personal god to which we attach our hopes to make our lives better. Vladimir and Estragon wait Godot to get their lives improved.
(vi) What is an absurd play?
Ans. An absurd play is a form of drama that emphasizes the absurdity of human existence by employing disjointed, repetitious, and meaningless dialogue, purposeless and confusing situations, and plots that lack realistic or logical development. "Waiting for Godot" by Samuel Beckett is an example of absurd play.
(vii) How does 'Waiting for Godot' demonstrate the qualities of theatre of the Absurd?
Ans. "Waiting for Godot" has a loose plot, there is no significant change in setting, its characters are mechanical puppets, its theme is unexplained, there is no witty repartee and pointed dialogue, and above all Estrogen and Vladimir's endless waiting for Godot is completely absurd.
(viii) Mention the modern qualities which are present in 'Waiting for Godot'.
Ans. "Waiting for Godot" is a modern play in the sense that it defies classic standards. Modern writers had a new liking for fragmented forms and discontinuous narratives, and "Waiting for Godot" is a superb example of fragmented form.
(ix) How is 'Waiting for Godot' a tragicomedy?
Ans. "Waiting for Godot is a mixture of comic and tragic elements. Musical devices, circus acts, cross-talks and the atmosphere of the play are stuff of pure comedy. However, Lucky's pathetic situation, the night-mares, the attempted suicide and above all Estrogen and Vladimir's waiting for something who never comes turn this comedy into a tragicomedy.
(x) What is the moral of the play 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. Life is condensed down into absolutely nothing and only the friendship between Vladimir and Estragon is able to stave off temporarily the loneliness of such a barren existence. We enter the world with no sense of identity and gradually as we grow up assume our identity from things around us -- our families, our achievements etc. However, our assumed identity may be based on illusory concepts.
(xi) In what language was 'Waiting for Godot' originally written?
Ans. "Waiting for Godot" was originally written in French in 1948, with the title "En attendant Godot". Beckett personally translated the play into English.  The world premiere was held on January 5, 1953, in the Left Bank Theater of Babylon in Paris.
(xii) What is 'mandrake'? What is its symbolic reference?
Ans. Mandrake is a plant of the nightshade family, with a forked fleshy root which supposedly resembles the human form and which was formerly used in herbal medicine and magic; it was alleged to shriek when pulled from the ground. In "Waiting for Godot", Vladimir says, "Where it falls mandrakes grow". It refers that mandrakes grow where the semen of the hanged man has dripped onto the ground.
(xiii) What does the song about the dog signify in 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. In the beginning of Act II, Vladimir moves about feverishly on the stage and suddenly begins to sing a dog song -- an old German Balled. It is a circular song. It is emblematic of the circularity and repetitiveness of the play as a whole. It also reinforces Beckett's idea of the loss of individuality, and creates more conflict between Vladimir and Estragon.

(xiv) What does Lucky's 'Dance in a Net' symbolize?
Ans. When Lucky is commanded to dance in Act I, Pozzo reveals that he calls his dance "The Net", adding, "He thinks he's entangled in a net". Thus Lucky's dance symbolizes the agony, strain and entanglement in life to magnify the ultimate suffering of human existence.

(xv) What is the function of the audience in 'Waiting for Godot'?
Ans. In the Theatre of the Absurd, there is an attempt to draw the audience into the play and make them feel involved. In "Waiting for Godot" it is never revealed conclusively who or what Godot is, this unknown force can be seen metaphorically represent that for which the audience is waiting in their own lives. The audience relates to the protagonists because waiting is common for all.

What is an absurd play?
An ‘absurd play’ is a play in which the meaninglessness and purposelessness is presented. There is very less action but dialogues are presented.

What are the nicknames of Estragon and Vladimir?
The nick name of Estragon is “Gogo” and the nick name of Vladimir is “Didi” in the play ‘Waiting for Godot’.

What is meant by Existentialist Philosophy?
Existentialist philosophy or Existentialism is the theory in which each and every individual have his choice, what to do either suicide or exist instead of following the rules of some religion etc.

Why is “Waiting for Godot” in two acts?
Play ‘Waiting for Godot’ is divided into two acts to show the passage of time. Both the acts presented almost in similar manner only few things changed, leaves on tree, Pozzo blind and Lucky dumb etc.

How does Lucky entertain Estragon and Vladimir?
Lucky entertained the Estragon and Vladimir through “dance in a net” and his long and incoherent speech.

What are the major themes of ‘Waiting for Godot’?
The major themes of “Waiting for Godot” are waiting and suffering. Other themes are misery, suicide, exploitation etc.

Why are Vladimir and Estragon waiting for Godot?
Vladimir and Estragon are waiting for Godot that Godot will come and solves their problems.

What is the significance of Godot in the play ‘Waiting for Godot’?
In this play Godot refers to Christ or a character who have a white beard and beaten the brother of the messenger boy, Godot may be refers to the God symbolically.

Explain the theme of two’s in the play “Waiting for Godot”?
The theme of two’s presented very well in this play, two friends Estragon and Vladimir waiting for Godot, two pairs of shoes of Estragon one in act one and other in act two, Pozzo and Lucky are two, two messenger boys and play is in two acts.

When and where does the play ‘Waiting for Godot’ take place?
“Waiting for Godot” takes place in the evening time on a country road under the willow tree.

What is the basic difference between Act I and Act II of ‘Waiting for Godot’?
The basic difference between the Act I and Act II of ‘Waiting for Godot’ is the passage of time, Act I in first day and Act II happen in second day. Other differences are tree is without leaves in Act I and in Act II tree have few leaves, in Act I Pozzo master and Lucky slave they are same in Act II but Pozzo blind and Lucky dumb etc.

How is ‘Waiting for Godot’ a tragicomedy?
The theme of suffering presents it as tragedy but the elements of comedy like playing with hats, Lucky’s dance in a net and incoherent speech present it as comedy. Therefore, the play has both the elements of comedy and tragedy, so, “Waiting for Godot” is a tragicomedy.

What is ‘waiting’ symbolizes in the play “Waiting for Godot”?
In the play “Waiting for Godot” the ‘waiting’ symbolizes the meaninglessness, suffering and hopelessness.

DRAMA 2 GCUF PAPER 2018

DRAMA 2 GCUF PAPER 2018

SHORT ANSWERS - HEART OF DARKNESS BY JOSEPH CONRAD

SHORT ANSWERS - HEART OF DARKNESS BY JOSEPH CONRAD

HEART OF DARKNESS BY CONRAD

(i) What elements in 'Heart of Darkness' appear to be drawn from Conrad's own life?
Ans. "Heart of Darkness" is a record of Conrad's own experiences in the course of his visit to Congo in 1890. Marlow's experiences and feelings are very much the same as Conrad's own had been. Marlow appears as a pessimist in the novel; and Conrad himself was a pessimist too.  Both in external and in terms of the inward mental life, Marlow meets the same fate which Conrad had met.
(ii) What are the unspeakable rites in 'Heart of Darkness'?
Ans. The unspeakable rites in "Heart of Darkness" concern human sacrifices and Kurtz's consuming a portion of the sacrificial victims. These sacrifices were established in the interest of perpetuating Kurtz's position as a man-god.
(iii) What does the Congo river symbolize in 'Heart of Darkness'?
Ans. The Congo River resembles a snake, and the snake symbolizes the idea of temptation and evil. The river leads Marlow and other Europeans into the heart of the continent where the temptations prove to be too much for many of them. Marlow's journey on the river represents a journey into one's inner spirit. As Marlow progresses further up the river in his search of Kurtz, he begins to learn more and more about himself.
(iv) How does Conrad complicate the idea of colonization being 'good'? What kind of negative effects does it have on both white and the black men of Africa?
Ans. Conrad complicates the idea of colonization being "good" by stating that the goal of European colonization of Africa is to civilize and educate the savages. The white men see the Africans as savages, and the Africans see the white men as unwelcome intruders. No party is happy in this situation.
(v) What does darkness represent in 'Heart of Darkness'?
Ans. Darkness is the inability to see: this may sound simple, but as a description of the human condition it has profound implications. Failing to see another human being means failing to understand the individual and failing to establish any sort of sympathetic communion with him or her. It also represents the inherent evil in humanity.
(vi) Trace the role of Russian in 'Heart of Darkness'.
Ans. The Russian is a devoted follower of Kurtz. The main purpose of the Russian is that he is the fool of the novel. He acts as a conduit of  information about Kurtz that neither Marlow nor the reader knew before.
(vii) What is the overall impression of the natives that Conrad produces?
Ans. When the narrator identifies natives as a sea of waving disembodied arms, it seems that Conrad produces a racist perspective on African natives. However, the narrator views the natives in groups rather than as individuals, and they seem to have very similar or identical intentions, but there is not necessarily any racist aspect of that interpretation.
(viii) How does Conrad depict Africans as different from Europeans?
Ans. Conrad depicts the Africans as dark savages and brutes, cannibals; dehumanizing them to mere animals. Kurtz repeatedly says, "Exterminate the brutes". In contrast the Europeans are portrayed as almost an Aryan race. Conrad depicts them as very proper and well groomed which is completely opposite of his description of the "savages".
(ix) Which literary devices in 'Heart of Darkness' are proto-Modernist?
Ans. Conrad uses an unreliable narrator, a hallmark of proto-Modernist writing. The narrator is not by his nature a liar but rather put under great pressure by his environment. As we learn at the beginning of the novel, Africa has driven mad a great many men. Themes of alienation, confrontation of the other, and disjointing of man from the natural world are also proto-Modernist.
(x) Who attacks the steamboat as it reaches the Inner Station?
Ans. As Marlow's steamship reaches the Inner Station in a heavy fog, arrows begin to fly out from the jungle. Marlow blows the steam whistle on the ship and scares off the attackers. Later, the Harlequin explains that the Africans attacked the ship because they were afraid the ship was coming to take Kurtz away from them.
(xi) Who is the Intended in "Heart of Darkness"?
Ans. The Intended is Kurtz's naive and long-suffering fiancee, whom Marlow goes to visit after Kurtz's death. Her unshakable certainty about Kurtz's love for her reinforces Marlow's belief that women live in a dream world, well insulated from reality.
(xii) What is the major conflict in 'Heart of Darkness'?
Ans. Both Marlow and Kurtz confront a conflict between their images of themselves as "civilized" Europeans and the temptation to abandon morality completely once they leave the context of European society.

Diphthong

Diphthong
• Diphthong: Sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another.
• Pure Vowel: A vowel which remains constant, it does not glide.
• Diphthongs have the same length as the long vowels.
• The first part (sound) is much longer and stronger than the second part.
• Example: aɪ in the words ‘eye’ and ‘ɪ ’ consists of the ‘a’ vowel, and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong, does the glide to ‘ɪ’ becomes noticeable.
English has 8 diphthongs.
Centering diphthong:
1. three (3) ending in ‘ə’ : ɪə, eə, ʊə
Closing diphthong
2. three (3) ending in ‘ɪ’: eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ
3. two (2) ending in ‘ʊ’: əʊ, aʊ
Examples:
• ɪə : beard, weird, fierce, ear, beer, tear
• eə: aired, cairn, scarce, bear, hair,
• ʊə: moored, tour, lure, sure, pure
• eɪ : paid, pain, face, shade, age, wait, taste, paper
• aɪ: tide, time, nice, buy, bike, pie, eye, kite, fine
• ɔɪ: void, loin, voice, oil, boil, coin, toy, Roy
• əʊ: load, home, most, bone, phone, boat, bowl
• aʊ: loud, gown, house, cow, bow, brow, grouse

Triphthongs

• A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and the to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption. For example, a careful pronunciation of the word ‘hour’ begins with a vowel quality similar to ‘ɑ:’, goes on to ‘ʊ’ then ends in ‘ə’.
• It says /aʊə/
• Triphthong : 5 closing diphthongs with ‘ə’ added on the end.
– eɪ + ə = eɪə . as in layer, player
– aɪ + ə = aɪə. as in lire, fire
– ɔɪ + ə = ɔɪə, as in loyal, royal
– əʊ + ə = əuə, as in lower, mower
– aʊ + ə = auə, as in power, hour.
By Asma sheikh

Discuss Keats ‘Beauty is Truth; Truth Beauty’.

Discuss Keats ‘Beauty is Truth; Truth Beauty’.

Keats was considerably influenced by Spenser and was, like Spenser, a passionate lover of beauty in all its forms and manifestations. The passion of beauty constitutes his aestheticism. Beauty was his pole star, beauty in nature, in woman and in art. For him, ‘A thing of beauty is a joy forever’.
When we think of Keats, ‘Beauty’ comes to our mind. Keats and Beauty have become almost synonymous. We cannot think of Keats without thinking of Beauty. Beauty is an abstraction, it does not give out its meaning easily. For Keats, it is not so. He sees Beauty everywhere. Keats made Beauty his object of wonder and admiration and he became the greatest poet of Beauty. All the Romantic poets had a passion for one thing or the other. Wordsworth was the worshipper of Nature and Coleridge was a poet of the supernatural. Shelley stood for ideals and Byron loved liberty. With Keats the passion for Beauty was the greatest, rather the only consideration. In the letters of Keats, we frequently read about his own ideas about Beauty. In one of his letters to George and Tom, he wrote:

            “With a great poet the sense of Beauty overcomes every other    consideration, or rather obliterates another consideration.”
He writes and identifies beauty with truth. Of all the contemporary poets Keats is one of the most inevitably associated with the love of beauty. He was the most passionate lover of the world as the career of beautiful images and of many imaginative associations of an object or word with a heightened emotional appeal. Poetry, according to Keats, should be the incarnation of beauty, not a medium for the expression of religious or social philosophy. Keats loved ‘the mighty abstract idea of Beauty in all things’. He could see Beauty everywhere and in every object. Beauty appeared to him in various forms and shapes—in the flowers and in the clouds, in the hills and rills, in the song of a bird and in the face of a woman, in a great book and in the legends of old. Beauty was there in the pieces of stone with carvings thereon. He hated didacticism in poetry. For the poetry itself was beauty so he wrote, “We hate poetry that has a palpable design upon us.”  ’The lines of his poem ‘Endymion’ have become a maxim:
            “A thing of beauty is a joy for ever:
            Its loveliness increases; it will never
            Pass into nothingness”
He even disapproved Shelley for subordinating the true end of poetry to the object of social reform. He dedicated his brief life to the expression of beauty as
For Keats the world of beauty was an escape from the dreary and painful life or experience. He escaped from the political and social problems of the world into the realm of imagination. Unlike Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron and Shelley, he remained untouched by revolutionary theories for the regression of mankind. His later poems such as “Ode to a Nightingale” and “Hyperion” show an increasing interest in human problems and humanity and if he had lived he would have established a closer contact with reality. He may overall be termed as a poet of escape. With him poetry existed not as an instrument of social revolt nor of philosophical doctrine but for the expression of beauty. He aimed at expressing beauty for its own sake. Keats did not like only those things that are beautiful according to the recognized standards. He had deep insight to see beauty even in those things are hostile to beauty for ordinary people. He said:
            “I have loved the principle of beauty in all things.”

Keats perceives Beauty through his natural and spontaneous application of senses. He has an extraordinary sense-perception. He could perceive objects more intensely than other people. He derived great aesthetic delight at the sight of objects of Nature, of a fair face, of the works of art, legends old and new. Haydon, his friend, observed that “the humming of a bee, the sight of a flower, the glitter of the sun, seemed to make his nature tremble; then his eyes flashed, his cheeks glowed and his mouth quivered.” Every moment revealed to him a sensation of wonder and delight. He wrote, “The setting sun would always set me to right, or if a sparrow were before my window, I take part in his existence and pick about the gravel.” He derived aesthetic delight through his senses. He looked at autumn and says that even autumn has beauty and charm:
            “Where are the song of Spring? Ay, where are they?
            Think not of them, thou hast thy music too”

Keats was not only the last but also the most perfect of the Romantics while Scott was merely telling stories, and Wordsworth reforming poetry or upholding the moral law, and Shelley advocating the impossible reforms and Byron voicing his own egoism and the political measure. Worshipping beauty like a devotee, perfectly content to write what was in his own heart or to reflect some splendour of the natural world as he saw or dreamed it to be, he had the noble idea that poetry exists for its own sake and suffers loss by being devoted to philosophy or politics. Disinterested love of beauty is one of the qualities that made Keats great and that distinguished him from his great contemporaries. He grasped the essential oneness of beauty and truth. His creed did not mean beauty of form alone. His ideal was the Greek ideal of beauty inward and outward, the perfect soul of verse and the perfect form. Precisely because he held this ideal, he was free from the wish to preach. Keats’ early sonnets are largely concerned with poets, pictures, sculptures or the rural solitude in which a poet might nurse his fancy. His great odes have for their subjects a storied Grecian Urn; a nightingale; and the season of autumn, to which he turns from the songs of spring. The appreciation of Beauty in Keats is through mind or spirit. The approach becomes intellectual as he endorsees in ‘Ode on Grecian Urn’:
“Beauty is truth, truth beauty -that is all
         Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know”
Art has captured Beauty of life and made it a truth for all the ages to be “a friend to man.” It is not the logical reaching after facts that helps in understanding the truth of things. Keats wrote, ‘What the imagination seizes as beauty must be true’ and it is his powerful assertion. His logic is simple: what is beautiful is truthful. What is ugly cannot be truthful. Find truth through beauty and beauty through truth. Beauty is no more a sensuous, physical or sentimental affair. It has spiritual associations; it is a concern of the soul of man for the salvation of man. Search for salvation must come from the heart of man and Keats knew it: “I am certain of nothing but of the holiness of the heart’s affections and the truth of Imagination—what the imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth.” But a true poet sees life as a whole. A true poet, in the words of Keats, enjoys light and shade foul and fair with the same delight. Thus, his concept of beauty encompasses Joy and Sorrow and Melancholy and Happiness which cannot be separated. Imagination reveals a new aspect of beauty, which is ‘sweeter’ than beauty which is perceptible to the senses. The senses perceive only the external aspect of beauty, but imagination apprehends its essence.

Bacon’s “Essays”: A Reflection of the Renaissance Spirit

MA English Annual System
University of Sargodha / Punjab

The Renaissance

The term ‘Renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’, or more generally, ‘revival’. It was the series of events by which Europe passed from a Medieval to a modern civilization. The Renaissance meant a revival of learning, and specially of the study of Greek which broke down the rigid conventions of the Middle ages. There was a new spirit of inquiry, of criticism, a passion for scientific accuracy, which was accompanied by a sense of individualism and worldliness. Its chief features are only too well reflected in the great prose writer of the age, Bacon. The essays have several features that show-the spirit of the Renaissance.

Pragmatical Spirit

A very important writer of the Italian Renaissance was Machiavelli, and the attitude he represents is quite typical of the age. An opportunistic philosophy that sacrificed high ethical ideals in the interests of achieving material progress, would not have been possible in the Middle ages but is the common spirit of the Renaissance. Bacon too teaches no ideal morality; he judges the Tightness of an action by the results it bears. Man is an individual and an end in himself and this sense of individualism gave rise to the feeling that he must know how to get on in this world. Thus we see Bacon advising his readers on how to become rich and influential, how to rise to high positions, how to exercise one’s power, and so on. Bacon does not consider it much of a drawback in a man to adopt crooked methods in order to achieve his ends. But here another spirit of the Renaissance asserts itself: the spirit of nationalism. It is to be noted that Bacon advocates even unethical ways but never at the expense of his country or state. The state is ever important and whatever men might do must be calculated to ensure the best for the country. Every thing that Bacon deals with has a utilitarian tone, so much so that even friendship is considered from the aspect of the advantages it can offer. Petitions can be granted to the undeserving person too if one likes the person. Compromise and expediency are the governing principles of Bacon’s advice. This concern for worldly success is one aspect of the spirit of the Renaissance.

Exploration, Adventure and Political Conquest

There was in the Renaissance a growing spirit of adventure and exploration. The importance of ‘great enterprise’ is mentioned often in the essays of Bacon. A country should make efforts at becoming great and powerful, and to this end should be ready to make war and become a military state. He gives practical advice to king and rulers on how to keep the subject under control and how to anticipate and avoid the dangers faced by the rulers. Not the essays of Empire and of Sedition. In the essay of the True Greatness of Kingdoms, Bacon gives a clear analysis of how to become a powerful state. Those were the days of naval wars and Bacon writes: “To be master of the seas is an abridgement of a monarchy.” His attitude towards war and peace is typical of the age in which there was tendency towards expansion of territory and power of a nation.

Classical Learning

The revival of classical learning and the study of ancient Greek and Roman literature and history was a hall-mark of the Renaissance. This spirit of learning is very much in the essays of Bacon. There are innumerable quotations from ancient writer that he employs to support his arguments. The several allusions to ancient history and the references to classical mythology are all evidence of the typical Renaissance culture. Latin writers like Tacitus, Seneca, Lucian, Lucretius, Virgil are often referred to and quoted from. There is hardly an essay that is free from these quotations or allusions. Classical mythology is often used to re-inforce his arguments. His love of learning is clearly portrayed in his essay, Of Studies, where he emphasises upon the advantages of books and studies. Many of his essays are heavy with learning. Note how he substantiates his arguments in the essay, of friendship, with instances from history.

Sensuousness

Though one would generally hesitate to ascribe the term ‘sensuous’ to Bacon, who is principally a philosopher-cum-politician, there are instances where this Renaissance feature is also to be found. The essay, Of Gardens, is one such example which shows him to be a keen lover of sensuous beauty:
“And because the breath of flowers is for sweeter in the air (where it comes and goes, like the warbling of music) than in the hand, therefore nothing is more fit for that delight than to know what be the flowers and plants that do best perfume the air.”
His love for singing and dancing and sheer spectacle comes out in his essay, Of Masques, though he quickly curbs this deviation into what he calls consideration of ‘toys’.

Wealth of Metaphor and Analogy

Yet another important characteristic of the Renaissance to be found in Bacon’s essays, is the abundant use of striking figures of speech. The metaphors and similes taken from different spheres of knowledge and experience reflect the exuberance of the age. To quote only a few sentences that have this typically rich, metaphorical quality,

1. “It is heaven upon earth to have a man’s mind move in charity, rest in providence, and turn upon the poles of truth.” (Of Truth)

2. “For a crowd is not company, and forces are but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love,” (Of Friendship)

3. “...glorious gifts and foundations are like sacrifices without salt, and but the painted sepulchers of alms, which soon will putrefy and corrupt inwardly.
(Of Riches)

Curiosity and Love of Travel

The sense of curiosity, and the love of increasing one’s knowledge is what prompts Bacon in his recommending travel for both the young and the old. The list that he makes of the things worth seeing are typical of the spirit of the Renaissance, It exhibits the tendency to know more and more about everything and every place.

An Exception

In one and only one aspect Bacon moves away from the spirit of the Renaissance. He does not reflect the ages’ pride in the English language. He preferred and admired Latin to English and in fact thought that the Latin version of his essays would be more popular. He apparently did not feel with others of his age that English could match the classical languages.

Conclusion

One can say that Bacon was a writer who represented the most salient features of his age, the age of the revival of learning and study of the ancients, the spirit of inquiry and individualism and nationalism.
It is easy to agree with the critic who says of Bacon that he was “the product of the Renaissance man’s glory, generous or terse, his opportunity of mind and body, his eye finely rolling across the subtlety and magnificence of the world, his joy in learning, discovering, weighing, or eating - all this as it existed in Bacon’s mind sifted through into the essays.”

BY ASMA SHEIKH

CONTRAST BETWEEN ODE TO NIGHTINGALE AND ODE TO GARCIAN URN

CONTRAST BETWEEN ODE TO NIGHTINGALE AND ODE TO GRECIAN URN

ODE TO NIGHTINGALE critical appreciation URDU/ HINDI

THOMAS WYATT N SURREY PATRIARCHAN SONNET IN URDU/HINDI PU UOS GCUF

JOHN KEATS LIFE, BIOGRAPHY, THEMES, FEATURES AND STYLE IN URDU HINDI

WILLIAM BLAKE PART 2 PAST PAPER POETRY PU UOS GCUF URDU HINDI 1

WILLIAM BLAKE PART 2 PAST PAPER POETRY PU UOS GCUF URDU HINDI 1

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It has strong affiliation with :
1. Anthropology through the study of language and culture and
2. Sociolgy through the investigation of the role language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions &
3. Social Psychology regarding :
    a)how attitudes and perceptions are expressed and
    b)how in-group and out-group behaviours are identified.
We use all these connections when we try to analyze language from social perspective.

》》》》》Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code in sociolinguistics simply refers to a language or a language variety. Both Code Mixing and Code Switching are in one way or another coming together of two or more languages or codes. Unlike Pidgins and Creoles, these are milder instances of language contact situation. By simple definition, Code Mixing is mixing of mostly words, but also phrases, clauses or even complete sentences of two languages or varieties. Code Switching is nothing but switching from one language to another to create a special effect. Note the addition of the phrase “special effect” in the definition of the latter. The key Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching is indeed that Code Switching has a special, social pragmatic consequence while Code Mixing does not.

●●What are the Causes of Code Mixing and Code Switching?
Let us first talk about one of the major causes of Code Mixing and Code Switching in linguistics. Language contact is when two or more languages or communities speaking those languages come in contact with each other. Coming together of individuals or communities speaking distinct languages most often results into bilingualism within the communities or its members. In this age of wide spread global communication, you can imagine that a language or speech community can rarely be monolingual. Even if there were an isolated, monolingual community somewhere, it would still show bilingualism, although within the language varieties or dialects of that same language.

Hence, language contact and bilingualism are the prime causes of code mixing and code switching in speech communities. This contact situation is not only brought by physical interaction of the speakers. It can also be social media interaction. Some other examples that facilitate language contact are academic or non-academic reading in a non-native language.

■■■Code Mixing and Code Switching Difference

Let us now go on and talk more about the Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching with examples. Note that the terms code mixing and switching in sociolinguistics are so closely related that some linguists do not mind using them interchangeably. Both involve hybridization of words, phrases, clauses or even full sentences of two or more languages. The Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching is that switching is done in a particular setting or for a particular purpose. And code mixing is done more out of linguistic requirement.

The language user switches codes while speaking in a certain style in front of another person. In one way, we kind of change identities while talking to different people. However, code mixing is more unintentional that way. We can mix one code with another when we do not know the correct translation of a particular word in another language. In fact, over the time, many code-mixed words become so frequent that they form a part of the language as loan or borrowed words. It is important that we look at a language synchronically to better study code mixing.

Also, language and cultures are closely related. Sometimes a concept expressed by one language is totally missing in another language. For example, the word jhootha in Hindi. The word is used for something like a utensil or food that someone has already used or tasted. This concept is totally missing in a language like English. So while speaking or writing in English, the user has no option but to use the word as it is. She can also choose to give a description of that word instead. However, if she knows that the other person knows Hindi as well, she will most likely use the word as it is without hesitation. You may want to read this interesting Quora discussion on how to say something is jhootha in English.    

Examples for Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching

Let us now try to understand Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching by looking at some example scenarios. While speaking Hindi, many people use the word “teacher” instead of the word adhyapak. This is because we use it less frequently. In fact, it is quite unnatural to say it like that. Pure Hindi is spoken rarely these days. Many a times, it is humorous to speak pure Hindi.

Sometimes we do not mix words just to sound natural. It also happens that we forget words in our language. Or we do not know them at all. For instance, do you know the Hindi word for the famous sport “Cricket”? How about the word “Computer”? Please write the correct answer in the comments below if you do. But I feel, you most likely don’t.

The thing is that English is the language of Education. We use it everyday to achieve various purposes. We see it all around us. Hence, it is not unlikely that we remember more English words for common things. Code mixing of single words is very common in formal and informal speech. Code mixing of complete clauses and sentences is also done. Although it is a little less frequent.

Now, let us move on to another scenario. A native Hindi speaker is speaking Hindi with his friends. All of a sudden, her boss comes and now she starts speaking English. This is switching. It is done intentionally because language users feel appropriate to communicate in a certain way in certain situations.

The example I gave above is an example of inter-sentential code switching. Code switching of single words can also be done. This is called tag code switching. Let us look at an example of tag code switching also. Consider a native English person giving speech in front of Spanish audience. The audience understands both English and Spanish. But just to induce comfort, she greets them with Hola instead of “Hello”. And says the rest of the things in English. She intentionally uses the word Hola to create a special effect in her speech. Hence, it would not be an example of code mixing but code switching.

past ppr of linguistics 2013-2017

past ppr of linguistics 2013-2017
Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic phonetics is the study of sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication.

Prevarication :

The ability to make sentences knowing that they are false and with the purpose of misleading the receiver of the information.

Allophone

In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds, or phones, or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language.

Allomorph

In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme, that is, when a unit of meaning varies in sound without changing the meaning. The term allomorph explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes.

TheoLinguistics

The study of religious language is known as TheoLinguistics.

Approximant Sounds

Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence.

Neologism

A neologism is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but that has not yet been fully accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. In the process of language formation, neologisms are more mature than protologisms.

Phoneme

A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language.

Diachronic and Synchronic Linguistics

A synchronic approach considers a language at a moment in time without taking its history into account. Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at a specific point of time, usually the present. By contrast, a diachronic approach considers the development and evolution of a language through history. Historical linguistics is typically a diachronic study.

Deep Structure

In transformational-generative grammar the underlying semantic or syntactic representation of a sentence, from which the surface structure may be derived.

Tone Language

A tone language or tonal language is a language in which saying words with different "tones" (which are like pitches in music but with a smaller number) changes the meaning of a word even if the pronunciation of the word is otherwise the same.

Stress

In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word, or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence.

Forensic Linguistics

Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of applied linguistics.

Hyponymy

the state or quality of being a hyponym, a term that denotes a subcategory of a more general class

Hyponym

A word of more specific meaning than a general or superordinate term applicable to it. For example, spoon is a hyponym of cutlery.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.

Displacement in Language

In linguistics, displacement is the capability of language to communicate about things that are not immediately present (spatially or temporally); i.e., things that are either not here or are not here now.

Form and Function

‘Form’ refers to the category labels we use for the building blocks of grammar, i.e. word classes, phrases, and clauses.

when we use the word ‘function’ when talking about language and grammar. It’s important to make clear whether we are talking about general functions, such as ‘disapproving’, ‘commenting’, ‘intensifying’, and the like, or about grammatical functions, such as Subject, Object and Adverbial.

Infix and adfix

An infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem (an existing word, or the core of a family of words). It contrasts with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the outside of a stem.

Difference between Connotation and Denomination

Connotation is very different because it pertains to the more loose associations to a particular word. It can also include the emotional input that is connected to a certain term or word. The connotative definition or description coexists with its denotative meaning.

Denotation is actually the word’s literal meaning. As such, it is regarded as a “dictionary definition.”

Generative Grammar

a type of grammar which describes a language in terms of a set of logical rules formulated so as to be capable of generating the infinite number of possible sentences of that language and providing them with the correct structural description.

Minimal Pairs

In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, spoken or signed, that differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, toneme or chroneme, and have distinct meanings. They are used to demonstrate that two phones are two separate phonemes in the language.

Language lateralization

Language Lateralization is referred to as the localization of functions in the brain, commonly attributed to its left hemisphere and right hemisphere.

Derivational Morpheme

In morphology, a derivational morpheme is an affix that's added to a word to create a new word or a new form of a word.
Derivational morphemes can change the grammatical category (or part of speech) of a word.

Inflectional Morpheme

In English morphology, an inflectional morpheme is a suffix that's added to a word (a noun, verb, adjective or an adverb) to assign a particular grammatical property to that word, such as its tense, number, possession, or comparison. Inflectional morphemes in English include the bound morphemes -s (or -es); 's (or s'); -ed; -en; -er; -est; and -ing. These suffixes may even do double- or triple-duty.

Voice sounds or Voicing

Voicing can refer to the articulatory process in which the vocal folds vibrate, its primary use in phonetics to describe phones, which are particular speech sounds.
It can also refer to a classification of speech sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration but may not actually be voiced at the articulatory level. That is the term's primary use in phonology: to describe phonemes; while in phonetics its primary use is to describe phones.

Voiceless Sounds

In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies voicing and that voicelessness is the lack of phonation.

Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code Mixing is mixing of mostly words, but also phrases, clauses or even complete sentences of two languages or varieties. Code Switching is nothing but switching from one language to another to create a special effect. Note the addition of the phrase “special effect” in the definition of the latter. The key Difference between Code Mixing and Code Switching is indeed that Code Switching has a special, social pragmatic consequence while Code Mixing does not.

Auditory Phonetics

Auditory phonetics is a branch of phonetics concerned with the hearing of speech sounds and with speech perception.

Articulatory Phonetics

The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures.

Language Universals

A linguistic universal is a pattern that occurs systematically across natural languages, potentially true for all of them. For example, All languages have nouns and verbs, or If a language is spoken, it has consonants and vowels.

Pidgin language
Pidgin Language is nobody's native language; may arise when two speakers of different languages with no common language try to have a makeshift conversation. Lexicon usually comes from one language, structure often from the other. Because of colonialism, slavery etc. the prestige of Pidgin languages is very low. Many pidgins are `contact vernaculars', may only exist for one speech event.

Creole
Creole is a language that was originally a pidgin but has become nativized, i.e. a community of speakers claims it as their first language. Next used to designate the language(s) of people of Caribbean and African descent in colonial and ex-colonial countries

Relexification

The process of substituting new vocabulary for old. Pidgins may get relexified with new English vocabulary to replace the previous Portuguese vocabulary, etc.

Segmental Phonology

In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analysed speech.

Suprasegmental Phonology

Suprasegmental Phonology in which we study a vocal effect that extends over more than one sound segment in an utterance, such as pitch, stress, or juncture pattern.

Arbitrariness of Language

In linguistics, arbitrariness is the absence of any natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form. An antithesis to sound symbolism, which does exhibit an apparent connection between sound and sense, arbitrariness is one of the characteristics shared between all languages.

Feminist Stylistics

Feminist stylistics can be defined as the sub-branch of stylistics which aims to account for the way in which gender concerns are linguistically encoded in texts, and which attempts to do so by employing some of the frameworks and models pertaining in the stylistics tool-kit.

Bound and Free Morpheme

In morphology, a bound morpheme is a morpheme (the most basic unit of meaning) that can appear only as part of a larger word; a free morpheme or unbound morpheme is one that can stand alone or can appear with other morphemes in a lexeme. A bound morpheme is also known as a bound form, and similarly a free morpheme is a free form.

Semi Vowel

In phonetics and phonology, a semivowel or glide, also known as a non-syllabic vocoid, is a sound that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary, rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.

Polysemy

Polysemy is the association of one word with two or more distinct meanings. A polyseme is a word or phrase with multiple meanings. The word "polysemy" comes from the Greek for "many signs."

Synonymy

Synonymy is the study of words with the same or similar meaning, or the quality of being similar.

Behaviouristic Theory of Language Learning

Behaviouristic Theory of Language Learning states that language is behavior and consiquently is learned like any other behavior via positive and negative reinforcement.

Experimental Phonetics

Experimental phonetics is the branch of general phonetics that deals with the study of the sounds and other human speech units by applying the experimental method. This scientific field covers basic areas of phonetics - articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.

Language Typology

Linguistic typology is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural and functional features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages.

Duality of Language

Duality of patterning refers to the ability of human language, both signed and spoken, to form discrete meaningful units.

Compounding

Compounding is the process of combining two words (free morphemes) to create a new word (commonly a noun, verb, or adjective). Also called composition it is from the Latin for "put together".

Inflections

Inflection refers to a process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings. The word "inflection" comes from the Latin inflectere, meaning "to bend."

Some extra Definitions related to Phonetics

Initiation: Setting air in motion through the vocal tract.

Phonation: The modification of airflow as it passes through the larynx (related to voicing).

Articulation: The shaping of airflow to generate particular sound types (related to manner)

Voice

In English we have both voiced and voiceless sounds. A sound fits into one of these categories according to how the vocal folds behave when a speech sound is produced.

Voiced: Voiced sounds are sounds that involve vocal fold vibrations when they are produced. Examples of voiced sounds are /b,d,v,m/.

If you place two fingers on either side of the front of your neck, just below your jawbone, and produce a sound, you should be able to feel a vibrating sensation. This tells you that a sound is voiced.

Voiceless: Voiceless sounds are sounds that are produced with no vocal fold vibration. Examples of voiceless sounds in English are /s,t,p,f/.
2) Place

The vocal tract is made up of different sections, which play a pivotal role in the production of speech. These sections are called articulators and are what make speech sounds possible. They can be divided into two types.

The active articulator is the articulator that moves towards another articulator in the production of a speech sound. This articulator moves towards another articulator to form a closure of some type in the vocal tract (i.e open approximation, close, etc – define)

The passive articulator is the articulator that remains stationary in the production of a speech sound. Often, this is the destination that the active articulator moves towards (i.e the hard palate).

I will now talk about the different places of articulation in the vocal tract

Bilabial: Bilabial sounds involve the upper and lower lips. In the production of a bilabial sound, the lips come into contact with each other to form an effective constriction. In English, /p,b,m/ are bilabial sounds.

Labiodental: Labiodental sounds involve the lower lip (labial) and upper teeth (dental) coming into contact with each other to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of labiodental sounds in English are /f,v/. Labiodental sounds can be divided into two types.
a) Endolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the inside of the lower lip.

b) Exolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the outer side of the lower lip.

Dental: Dental sounds involve the tongue tip (active articulator) making contact with the upper teeth to form a constriction. Examples of Dental sounds in English are / θ, ð/. If a sound is produced where the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth, it is attributed the term ‘interdental’.

Alveolar: First of all, before I explain what an alveolar sound is, it’s useful to locate the alveolar ridge itself. If you place your tongue just behind your teeth and move it around, you’ll feel a bony sort of ridge. This is known as the alveolar ridge. Alveolar sounds involve the front portion of the tongue making contact with the alveolar ridge to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of alveolar sounds in English are /t,d,n,l,s/.

Postalveolar: Postalveolar sounds are made a little further back (‘post’) from the alveolar ridge. A postalveolar sound is produced when the blade of the tongue comes into contact with the post-alveolar region of your mouth. Examples of post-alveolar sounds in English are / ʃ, ʒ /.

Palatal: Palatal sounds are made with the tongue body (the big, fleshy part of your tongue). The tongue body raises up towards the hard-palate in your mouth (the dome shaped roof of your mouth) to form an effective constriction. An example of a palatal sounds in English is /j/, usually spelt as <y>.

Velar: Velar sounds are made when the back of the tongue (tongue dorsum) raises towards the soft palate, which is located at the back of the roof of the mouth. This soft palate is known as the velum. An effective constriction is then formed when these two articulators come into contact with each other. Examples of velar sounds in English are /k,g ŋ /.

3) Manner

In simple terms, the manner of articulation refers to the way a sound is made, as opposed to where it’s made. Sounds differ in the way they are produced. When the articulators are brought towards each other, the flow of air differs according to the specific sound type. For instance, the airflow can be completely blocked off or made turbulent.

1) Stop articulations:

Stop articulations are sounds that involve a complete closure in the vocal tract. The closure is formed when two articulators come together to prevent air escaping between them. Stop articulations can be categorized according to the kind of airflow involved. The type of airflow can be oral (plosives) or nasal (nasals). I will now talk about both plosives and nasals separately.

1a) Plosives: are sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract. The velum is raised during a plosive sound, which prevents air from escaping via the nasal cavity. English plosives are the sounds /p,b,t,d,k,g/. Plosives can be held for quite a long time and are thus also called ‘maintainable stops’.

1b) Nasals are similar to plosives in regards to being sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract. However, the velum is lowered during nasal sounds, which allows airflow to escape through the nasal cavity. There are 3 nasal sounds that occur in English /m,n, ŋ/

2) Fricatives:

Fricative sounds are produced by narrowing the distance between the active and passive articulators causing them to be in close approximation. This causes the airflow to become turbulent when it passes between the two articulators involved in producing a fricative sound. English fricatives are sounds such as / f,v, θ,ð, s,z, ʃ,ʒ /

3) Approximants:

Approximant sounds are created by narrowing the distance between the two articulators. Although, unlike fricatives, the distance isn’t wide enough to create turbulent airflow. English has 4 approximant sounds which are /w,j,r,l/.

Vowels

When it comes to vowels, we use a different specification to describe them. We look at the vertical position of the tongue, the horizontal position of the tongue and lip position.

Vowels are made with a free passage of airflow down the mid-line of the vocal tract. They are usually voiced and are produced without friction.

1) Vertical tongue position (close-open): vertical tongue position refers to how close the tongue is to the roof of the mouth in the production of a vowel. If the tongue is close, it is given the label close. However, if the tongue is low in the mouth when a vowel is produced, it’s given the label open. + close-mid/open mid (see below).

Some examples of open vowels: ɪ, ʊ

Some examples of close vowels: æ, ɒ,

2) Horizontal tongue position (front, mid, back): Horizontal tongue refers to where the tongue is positioned in the vocal tract in terms of ‘at the front’ or ‘at the back’ when a vowel is produced. If the tongue is at the front of the mouth it’s given the label front, if the tongue is in the middle of the mouth it’s given the label mid and if the tongue is at the back of the mouth it’s given the label back.

Some examples of front vowels: ɪ , e, æ

Some examples of mid vowels: ə

Some examples of back vowels: ʌ,ɒ

3) Lip position: As is inferred, lip position concerns the position of the lips when a vowel is produced. The lips can either be round, spread or neutral.

Examples of round vowels: u, o

Examples of spread vowels: ɪ, ɛ

There are also different categories of vowels, for example: monophthongs and diphthongs.

Monophthongs: Monophthongs are vowels that are produced by a relatively stable tongue position.

Monophthongs can be divided into two categories according to their duration. These are long and short vowels and their duration is mirrored in their names.

Examples of short vowels: e, æ, ɪ, ʊ

Examples of long vowels: ɔ: ɜ:, i:, u:

Diphthongs: Diphthongs are vowels where the tongue moves from one part of the mouth to another. They can be seen as starting of as one vowel and ending as a different vowel.

Here are some examples: /aʊ, ɪə, ɔɪ, əʊ/

"Characteristics of an Epic Poem"

"Characteristics of an Epic Poem"

An epic is the highest type of narrative poetry. It is a long narrative poem in which the characters and the action are of heroic proportions. From the works of Homer and Virgil, certain characteristics have become established in the West as standard attributes of the epic. The main attributes are given below.

(i) The hero is a figure of great national or international importance. Moreover, the characters must belong to the highest class in a society, raised above the common man by birth, position, manners and appearance. They must be kings and princes descended from heroes, and even from the gods, compelling in their deportment and arresting in their personal appearance. In Paradise Lost the hero is Adam, who incorporates in himself the entire race of man.
(ii) The setting is ample in scale, sometimes world-wide, or even larger in the classical epic. The scope of Paradise Lost is cosmic, for it includes Heaven, Earth and Hell.
(iii) The action involves heroic deeds: Paradise Lost includes the war in Heaven, the journey of Satan to discover the newly created world, and his audacious attempt to outwit God by corrupting mankind.
(iv) The action should be an entire action, complete in itself. By this is meant that it should have a beginning, a middle, and an end.
(v) The next characteristic of the epic poem according to Aristotle is that it must have greatness, by which is meant that it must produce far-reaching consequences in which the destinies of great men and nations are involved.
(vi) God are also used in the epic as a tragedy, as deux ex machina; the intervention of supernatural machinery advances the plot and solves its complications. It not only gives ample scope for the exercise of the poet’s imagination, it also provides a proper spiritual support for the heroic deeds.
(vii) An epic poem is a ceremonial composition and deliberately given a ceremonial style proportionate to its great subject and architecture. Hence, Milton’s Latinised diction and stylized syntax, his resounding lists of strange and sonorous names, and his epic similes, that is, sustained similes in which the comparison is developed far beyond the specific points are appropriate.
(viii) The poet begins by stating his theme, then invokes a Muse in his great undertaking and addresses the Muse.

A_Doll_s_House_by_Henrik_Ibsen in Urdu

#A_Doll_s_House_by_Henrik_Ibsen

’گڑیا کا گھر‘ (A Doll's House)ناروے کے ڈرامہ نگار ہینرک ابسنHenrik  Ibsen کا مشہور ڈراما ہے۔ اس کا مرکزی کردار’نورا‘ ایک ایسی عورت ہے جو بالادست مردوں کے طے کردہ معیار کے تحت زندگی گزارنے پر مجبور ہے۔ پہلے باپ اور پھر شوہر کی تابعدار یہ عورت گویا ایک گڑیا ہے جسے نہ خودمختاری حاصل ہے اور نہ ہی اس کی کوئی شناخت ہے۔ یہ ڈراما نورا کے اس فیصلے پر ختم ہوتا ہے جہاں وہ اپنی ذات کی دریافت کے لیے اپنے شوہر اور بچوں کو چھوڑنے کا فیصلہ کرتی ہے۔ منصف کی جانب سے اس ڈرامے کے حوالے سے طلاق یا اپنا ’گھر‘ چھوڑنے کے کلنک کی بجائے نورا کو عزت نفس اور اپنی ذات کی پہچان پر مبنی ایک آزاد زندگی دینے میں جو انسان دوستی دکھائی، اسے بہت سراہا گیا۔ اس ڈرامے سے ایک سنسنی پھیل گئی اور ایک بحث کا آغاز ہو گیا۔ قدامت پرست غصے سے تلملانے لگے جبکہ آزادیِ نسواں کے حامی لبرل حلقوں نے شادیانے بجائے۔ اس ڈرامے کو اپنے وقت کی سماجی قدروں سے ایک بےباک بغاوت کے طور پر دیکھا گیا۔ عورتوں کے غیر فعال، سماج کے مرکزی دھارے سے کٹے ہوئے اور اپنی تمناو¿ں کا گلا گھوٹنے والے کردار پر سوال اٹھائے گئے اور ان سماجی ڈھانچوں پر بھی تنقید کی گئی جو مردانہ بالادستی کو نافذ کرتے تھے۔ یہ 1897 کی بات ہے۔ لیکن ہم میں سے کتنے آج کے پاکستان میں یا دنیا کے مختلف ممالک میں رہنے والی پاکستانی برادریوں میں اس کا عکس دیکھ سکتے ہیں؟ اگرچہ پاکستان میں عورتوں کے مسائل کے حوالے سے بیداری میں اضافہ ہوا ہے اور آج مختلف سماجی شعبوں میں عورتیں پہلے کی نسبت زیادہ دکھائی دیتی ہیں لیکن پاکستانی معاشرہ آج بھی مردانہ بالادستی کے اصول پر قائم ہے اور اپنے جسمانی اور مالیاتی تحفظ کے لیے مردوں پر انحصار کرتا ہے۔ مزید یہ کہ وہ سماجی اور ثقافتی سوچ جو عورتوں کو دوسرے درجے کا شہری سمجھتی ہے، اسی طرح موجود اور مضبوط دکھائی دیتی ہے۔ جہاں معاشرے میں مذہبی انتہا پسندی میں اضافے سے عورتوں کے حقوق کے حوالے سے ہونے والی کامیابیاں خطرے میں پڑ گئی ہیں، وہیں بالائی سطح پر قانونی اور عدالتی نظام بھی معاشرے میں عورتوں کے مقام میں اضافہ کرنے میں مددگار دکھائی نہیں دیتا۔ حتیٰ کہ جہاں قانون موجود بھی ہے، وہاں بھی اس پر عمل درآمد کی سنجیدہ کوشش دکھائی نہیں دیتی۔ کیا عورتوں کے بنیادی حقوق کو ریاست اور معاشرے کی جانب سے توثیق اور تحفظ حاصل ہے؟ خواتین کا عالمی دن (آٹھ مارچ) ابھی چند دن پہلے گزرا ہے۔ اسی سماجی کارکن پروین رحمان کی دوسری برسی بھی منائی گئی۔ اس موقعے پر ضروری ہے کہ دیکھا جائے کہ پاکستان خصوصاً اس کی خواتین کہاں کھڑی ہیں۔ خواتین کا عالمی دن خواتین کا پہلا عالمی دن ایک صدی پہلے 1911 میں منایا گیا۔ 1977 میں اقوام متحدہ کی جنرل اسمبلی نے رکن ممالک کو مدعو کیا کہ وہ آٹھ مارچ کو اقوام متحدہ کا یومِ حقوق نسواں اور عالمی امن کے طور پر منائیں۔ ہر سال اس دن سماجی، سیاسی اور معاشی شعبوں میں عورتوں ماضی، حال اور مستقبل کی کامیابیوں کو سلام کیا جاتا ہے۔ چین، روس، ویت نام اور آذربائیجاں میں اس دن قومی تعطیل ہوتی ہے۔ اس برس اس دن کو خصوصی طور پر عورتوں کےحقوق کے لیےہونے والی 1995 کی بیجنگ کانفرنس اور لائحہ عمل کو اجاگر کرنے کے لیے منایا گیا۔ اقوام متحدہ کے ہیڈکوارٹر (نیویارک) میں کمیشن برائے حقوق نسواں کا 59واں اجلاس نو تا 20 مارچ تک جاری رہے گا جس میں اس بات کا جائزہ لیا جائے گا کہ بیجنگ کانفرنس کی سفارشات پر کس حد تک عمل درآمد ہوا ہے اور اس کے نتیجے میں عورتوں کے مقام و مرتبہ میں کس حد تک اضافہ ہوا ہے۔ بیجنگ میں ہونے والی اس یادگار کانفرنس میں مرکزی طور پر جن معاملات کو نمایاں حیثیت دی گئی اور جن سے صنفی برابری کا لائحہ عمل طے پایا، ان میں خواتین اور غربت، خواتین پر تشدد اور اقتدار اور فیصلہ سازی میں خواتین کی شمولیت جیسےاہداف شامل تھے۔ اس اجتماعی فیصلے پر دنیا کے 189 ممالک نے دستخط کیے جن میں پاکستان بھی شامل تھا۔ پاکستان میں حقوق نسواں کی کہانی 1982 میں، اپنے والد کے قتل کے تین سال بعد 29 سالہ بینظیر بھٹو پاکستان پیپلز پارٹی کی سربراہ منتخب کی گئیں۔ چھ برس بعد وہ کسی اسلامی مملکت کی پہلی خاتون سربراہ حکومت منتخب ہوئیں۔ 17 سالہ ملالہ یوسف زئی عورتوں کے تعلیم کے حق کے لیے جدوجہد کرنے والی کارکن ہیں اور گذشتہ برس وہ تاریخ کی کم عمر ترین نوبیل انعام یافتہ قرار پائیں۔ حال ہی میں ایک اور نوجوان لڑکی نے کم عمری کی شادیوں کے خلاف ایک سماجی مہم کا آغاز کیا ہے۔ معاشی شراکت داری اور مواقع میں عدم مساوات کے حوالے سے پاکستان دنیا کے بدترین ممالک میں سے ایک ہے ان مثالوں کے باوجود، جن سے بظاہر ایسا لگتا ہے کہ پاکستان میں عورتوں کے مقام میں نمایاں اضافہ ہوا ہے، اگر صنفی برابری پر نظر ڈالی جائے تو پاکستان دنیا کے بدترین ملکوں میں سے ایک ہے جو ورلڈ اکنامک فورم کے 2014 کے صنفی امتیاز کے اشاریے میں صرف یمن سے آگے ہے۔ پاکستان مسلسل تین برسوں سے اپنے اس آخری سے پہلی پوزیشن کا دفاع کر رہا ہے۔ حقیقی معنوں میں اس کا کیا مطلب ہے؟ ورلڈ اکنامک فورم صنفی امتیاز کو بنیادی طور پر چار حوالوں سے جانچتا ہے۔ ان میں شامل ہیں: معاشی شراکت داری اور مواقع، روزگار میں عورتوں کی نمائندگی، تنخواہوں میں مساوات، عورتوں کی آمدنی کا تخمینہ، قانون ساز اسمبلیوں میں خواتین کا تناسب، اعلیٰ سرکاری افسروں میں خواتین کا تناسب اور پیشہ ورانہ ماہرین اور تکنیکی ورکروں میں خواتین کا تناسب تعلیمی صورتحال، خواتین کی شرح خواندگی، اور پرائمری، سیکنڈری اور اعلیٰ تعلیم کے اداروں میں خواتین کے داخلے کی شرح صحت اور حقِ حیات، بچوں کی پیدائش میں لڑکیوں اور لڑکوں کا تناسب اور صحت مند شرح عمر کا تخمینہ سیاسی اختیار، پارلیمنٹ میں عورتوں کا تناسبوزارتوں میں عورتوں کا تناسب اور عورت سربراہ مملکت کے اقتدار کا دورانیہ معاشی شراکت داری اور مواقع میں عدم مساوات کے حوالے سے پاکستان دنیا کے بدترین ممالک میں سے ایک ہے۔ لیبر فورس میں صرف 25 فیصد خواتین شامل ہیں جبکہ مردوں کا تناسب 84 فیصدہے۔ مردوں کی شرح خواندگی 47 فیصد جبکہ عورتوں کی شرح خواندگی صرف 42 فیصد ہے۔ ہر 40 منٹ میں ایک عورت دوران زچگی مر جاتی ہے اوربچہ جنم دینے والی عورت کی صحت کے لئے انتہائی کم وسائل رکھے گئے ہیں۔ رافعہ زکریا پیشے کے اعتبار سے وکیل ہیں اور ایمنسٹی انٹرنیشنل، امریکہ کے بورڈ کی رکن اور روزنامہ ڈان اور الجزیرہ میں کالم نگار ہیں۔ وہ گذشتہ دس برس سے پاکستانی خواتین کے حقوق کے حوالے سے کام کر رہی ہیں اور ایک کتاب ’زوجہ زنان خانہ: پاکستان کی حقیقی تاریخ‘ کی مصنفہ ہیں۔ وہ کہتی ہیں کہ پاکستان میں عورتوں کی آزادی کی گنجائش میں کمی واقع ہوئی ہے: ’پاکستانی عورت کو آج کم آزادی حاصل ہے۔ مسئلہ یہ ہے کہ مذہبی انتہا پسندی میں اضافہ ہوا ہے اور بہت سے لوگ ایک ایسے مکمل اسلامی معاشرے کا خواب دیکھ رہے ہیں جہاں عورتوں کا گھر کی چار دیواری میں میں رہنا اسلامی طرز حیات اپنانے کے مترادف سمجھا جاتا ہے۔ یہ دونوں لازم و ملزوم ہیں۔ ‘ عورتوں نے خود جدوجہد اور لابنگ کی ہے اور ریاستی اداروں اور معاشرے میں اپنے لیے مقام بنایا ہے: عاصمہ جہانگیر معروف وکیل اور انسانی حقوق کی کارکن، عاصمہ جہانگیر کا کہنا ہے کہ اگرچہ سماجی اشاریے افسوس ناک ہیں اور عورتوں کے خلاف لرزہ خیز واقعات ہوتے رہتے ہیں لیکن ’اب عورتوں کو زیادہ آگاہی حاصل ہے، وہ معاشرے میں زیادہ متحرک ہیں اور آج ان کی آواز زیادہ سنی جاتی ہے۔‘ تاہم ان کا کہنا ہے کہ اس ترقی میں ریاست کی کوئی کاوش شامل نہیں۔ ان کے مطابق: ’عورتوں نے خود جدوجہد اور لابنگ کی ہے اور ریاستی اداروں اور معاشرے میں اپنے لیے مقام بنایا ہے۔‘ گھریلو تشدد، کم عمری کی شادیاں اور جبری شادیاں پاکستانی معاشرے میں موجود گہرے صنفی امتیاز کا نمایاں اظہار ہیں۔ اقوام متحدہ کے اعداد و شمار کے مطابق دنیا بھر میں پانچ ہزار عورتیں ہر برس ناموسی قتل کا شکار ہوتی ہیں۔ پاکستان میں ہر برس ایک ہزار عورتیں قتل ہوتی ہیں۔ یعنی دنیا بھر میں قتل ہونے والی عورتوں کی 20 فیصد ہلاکتیں صرف پاکستان میں ہوتی ہیں۔ گذشتہ ہفتے سینٹ نے ناموسی قتل کے خلاف ایک بل پاس کیا ہے لیکن رافعہ زکریا کہتی ہیں کہ یہ اقدامات مسئلے کی تہہ تک پہنچنے میں ناکام رہتے ہیں: ’کوئی اصل مسئلہ یعنی عورتوں کے دوسرے درجے کا مقام، چاہے شوہر کے انتخاب کا معاملہ ہو یا زنا بالجبر کی رپورٹ یا گواہی کا مسئلہ ہو، اس بل میں ایسا کوئی اقدام نہیں اٹھایا گیا جس سے عورتوں کو زنا بالجبر کی رپورٹ یا گواہی میں مدد ملتی ہو۔‘ 2004 میں بننے والے قانون برائے تحفظ نسواں پر پہلے ہی وفاقی شرعی عدالت سوال اٹھا چکی ہے اور وہ کئی برسوں سے معرضِ التوا میں ہے۔ وہ مزید کہتی ہیں کہ ’پاکستان میں امن وامان بری طرح تباہ ہو چکا ہے۔ ریاست مجرموں کے خلاف موثر کارروائی نہں کرتی اور مقدمات کئی کئی برس تک لٹکے رہتے ہیں۔‘ دو برس قبل، اس ہفتے میں، سماجی کارکن پروین رحمان، جنھوں نے گذشتہ 30 برس سے اپنی زندگی خدمت خلق کے لیے وقف کر رکھی تھی، کراچی میں دن دہاڑے چار مسلح افراد کی گولیوں کا نشانہ بنیں۔ ان کی دوسری برسی ہے اور ابھی تک کوئی گرفتاری عمل میں نہیں آئی۔ عاصمہ جہانگیر کہتی ہیں کہ اگرچہ عورتوں کے حوالے سے قوانین میں، خصوصا ضیا الحق کے ’استبدادی‘ دور کے مقابلے میں بہتری آئی ہے لیکن محض قوانین بجائے خود کافی نہیں: ’قوانین خود اپنے آپ پر عمل نہیں کروا سکتے، گورننس اور عدلیہ کا نظام انتہائی ناقص ہے۔‘ اس تمام صورت حال میں پاکستانی طالبان کی شدت پسندی مزید اضافہ کر دیتی ہے جس نے ایک دہائی سے پاکستان کو تاراج کر رکھا ہے۔ وہ عورتوں کو اپنے زہریلے ایجنڈے کا ایک مہرہ سمجھتے ہیں اور انھیں سماجی ذندگی سے نکال باہر کرنے کے حوالے سے اپنے سیاسی مدعا کا اظہار کرتے ہیں۔ طالبان نے سوات اور فاٹا میں عورتوں کی تعلیم اور طبی ورکروں کے خلاف ایک انتہائی متشدد تحریک چلائی۔ کس بات کا جشن منائیں؟ پاکستانی عورت کو آج کم آزادی حاصل ہے۔ مسئلہ یہ ہے کہ مذہبی انتہا پسندی میں اضافہ ہوا ہے اور بہت سے لوگ ایک ایسے مکمل اسلامی معاشرے کا خواب دیکھ رہے ہیں جہاں عورتوں کا گھر کی چار دیواری میں میں رہنا اسلامی طرز حیات اپنانے کے مترادف سمجھا جاتا ہے۔ یہ دونوں لازم و ملزوم ہیں۔ رافعہ زکریا عاصمہ کہتی ہیں: ’عورتوں کو جشن منانا چاہیے۔ آج زندگی کے ہر شعبے میں انھیں تسلیم کیا جا رہا ہے۔ عورتیں جبر کے خلاف آواز اٹھا رہی ہیں۔ وہ اپنے حقوق اور ان کی پامالی کے حوالے سے آج زیادہ آگاہ ہیں اور وہ مزید حقوق کا مطالبہ کر رہی ہیں۔‘ سچی بات یہ ہے کہ عورتوں کی ہمت کی داد دینا پڑتی ہے جو غیر معمولی، اکثر اوقات خطرناک حالات، رکاوٹوں اور جبر کے باوجود آگے بڑھ رہی ہیں۔ آنے والے برسوں میں 2030 تک پاکستان کی 60 فیصد آبادی شہری ہو گی جن میں عورتوں کی ایک نئی لہر بھی شامل ہو گی۔ اس صورت حال میں ممکنہ طور پر ایسے مواقع پیدا ہوں گے کی عورتیں قبائلی اور ذات برادری کی سوچ اور ذہنی ڈھانچوں کو توڑ کر اپنے خاندان میں معاشی اور فیصلہ سازی کا زیادہ اختیار حاصل کر سکیں۔ اگرچہ دنیا بھر میں صنفی امتیاز ایک جاری جدوجہد ہے لیکن پاکستان میں عورتوں کے حقوق کو ادارہ جاتی شکل دینا ایک طویل اور صبر آزما سفر ہے جس میں کئی ان دیکھے جال بچھے ہوں گے۔ رافعہ کہتی ہیں کہ پاکستان میں ایک عورت کی قانونی حیثیت یہ ہے کہ ایک جج اگر چاہے تو بھاگی ہوئی لڑکی کو زبردستی اس کے باپ کے پاس بھیج سکتا ہے۔ درحقیقت، بیشتر عورتیں اپنا گھر چھوڑتے ہوئے زندگی با بدنامی کا خطرہ مول لیتی ہیں۔ لہٰذا ابسن کے ڈرامے ’گڑیا گھر‘ کی نورا کے برعکس پاکستانی عورتوں کی اکثریت کے لیے سماجی اور قانونی اعتبار سے آسان فیصلہ نہیں۔ پاکستان ابھی تک اپنی عورت کو یہ درس دینے پر کمر بستہ ہے کہ اس کا یہ بنیادی حق انتہائی قابل مذمت ہے۔