💖Oedipus Rex as a Tragedy

 💖Oedipus Rex as a Tragedy

Oedipus Rex is one of greatest literary creations ever produced by man. The greatness and uniqueness of the play is attributed mainly to its perfection as a tragedy. Viewed from Aristotelian point of view, we find the play perfectly compatible with standards set by Aristotle. Even Oedipus Rex was the source of inspiration for Aristotle to ordain the principal rules or the qualities of a perfect tragedy. Before discussing Oedipus Rex as a tragedy, we should recall how Aristotle defined tragedy and its ingredients.
According to Aristotle:-
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action, serious, complete and of certain magnitude, in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of embellishments, through action and not narration and through scenes of pity and fear bringing about the Catharsis of these emotions”
Aristotle points out six essential elements of a tragedy which are Plot, Tragic hero, Thought, Diction, Chorus, Spectacle.
Let us see how Oedipus Rex possesses all the ingredients and excellences of a perfect tragedy determined by Aristotle. The first and most essential element of a tragedy is its plot which can be called the soul of tragedy. The plot of Oedipus Rex is perhaps the best among all dramatic creations. Its excellences are perfectly in accordance with Aristotelian standards. The salient features of the plot of Oedipus Rex are as follows.
Unity and Coherence:-
According to Aristotle the greatest feature of a good plot is its unity. We find that the entire plot of Oedipus Rex is a perfect and coherent sequence of separate incidents which are logically inter-connected and which cannot be separated from each other.
Basic function of Tragedy:-
Another feature of a good plot is its capacity to arouse the feelings of pity and fear, and to bring about the catharsis of these emotions. The plot of Oedipus Rex fulfills this basic demand of a tragedy. Various happenings in the play do arouse the feelings of pity and fear among the audience. The misery of Thebans afflicted with deathly sickness, clash between Oedipus and Teiresias, the allegations of Oedipus and Creon for each other, the horrible discovery of truth about Oedipus, the acts of Jocaste’s suicide and gouging of Oedipus’ eyes, the plight of Oedipus’ children, all is so fearsome and pitiable. Most importantly pity is aroused chiefly through the tragic fate of Oedipus and fear is aroused through the sense of uncertainty which is ever hovering over human life.
Dramatic irony:-
The plot of the play is logical and effective. It is also complex and replete with dramatic irony. This dramatic irony is created through dialogues and situations. Oedipus’ promise to punish and banish the killer, the quarrel between Oedipus and Teiresias, Jocaste’s verdict about oracles, Oedipus’s effort to avoid the prophecy about him, all this and much more is fraught with dramatic irony.
Three unities:-
The plot of Oedipus Rex observes the three unities of action, place and time. We see that the plot has unity of action as the entire action centres round the one theme, the quest and inquiry of the murder of Laius. Similarly there is unity of place as the entire action takes place at one place, the royal palace and it occurs within 24 hours which is unity of time.
The second most important element of tragedy is tragic hero. According to Aristotle a tragic hero must be neither a villain nor saint.
He should be rather a man ordinary weaknesses and virtues, occupying a position of eminence and falling into ruin from that position not because of deliberate wickedness, but because of some error of judgement. If we examine Oedipus on these lines we find him a perfect example of a tragic hero. He is a man of royal birth, enthroned on seat of eminence. He is neither an angel nor a devil rather a blend of weaknesses and virtues. On one side he is famed as the man of all men, the wisest, the noblest, a caring king, a respecting husband and a loving father. On the other hand he is hot tempered, rude, stubborn, over confident, proud of his genius, and blasphemous. He falls into ruin from the position of prosperity and prominence not due to any wicked deed rather due to the sins committed in ignorance. So Oedipus is a true tragic hero who is more sinned against than sinning.
Another essentiality of a tragedy is the song in form of the Chorus. The role of chorus is a vital part of Greek drama. In Oedipus Rex the role of chorus is very vital. It is part of dramatis personae. Choral Odes reflect the pathos and passion of changing situations in the play. The choragus speaks as a viewer, a commentator, an intervener and a coordinator.
Another essentiality of a tragedy which Oedipus Rex possesses is thought. The play Oedipus Rex accentuates the sublime thought which is reflection of sublime intellectual ability of its author. The questions which are raised throughout the play are perhaps too serious and sublime to be ever answered. These questions pertain human status in the world, the relation between God and man, the role of fate and character in shaping out human lot and such other issues.
Finally the cruel role of fate in the tragedy of the hero makes the tragedy poignant and pinching. Following the Greek tradition Sophocles gives fate most predominant role in Oedipus Rex. On the whole the tragedy of Oedipus is the tragedy of fate. This makes the play one of the greatest tragedies.
We can wind up this discussion with the conclusion that Oedipus Rex is a perfect example of a perfect tragedy. No other play from the comity of great plays observes the rules of a tragedy more precisely and perfectly. It possesses all the essentialities and excellences that are mentioned by Aristotle in his “Poetics”. It presents to us a terrible affirmation of man’s subordinate position in the universe and at the same time a heroic vision of man’s victory in defeat. Oedipus Rex has no parallel to its perfect plot and pathos, the suffering of the protagonist, arousal and catharsis of emotions of pity and fear, dramatic irony, dialogue and diction.💖

Past papers (DRAMA –I) JEW of MALTA (UOS)

 Past papers (DRAMA –I)

JEW of MALTA (UOS)

Objective Type:

1.                What does Ferneze suggest for Calymath in the end of Jew of Malta?

2.                What is the act 2 scene 1of Jew of Malta mainly about?

3.                What is meant by micavillain statement “end justifies the man.”

4.                What is brabas reaction on the death of Abigail?

5.                How does Ferneze and knights justify the confiscation of brabas wealth? 2017

6.                Why does brabas decide to kill ithamore? 2018

7.                Why does brabas scold the three jews in the senate house? 2016

8.                Why is ithamore so quick to scheme against brabas? 2015

9.                Why was brabas angry eith the three jews?

 

Subjective part

1.                “I count a religion but a childish toy and hold there and hold, there is no sin but ignorance”. How far is Marlow justified in these claims in the Jew of Malta? 2019

2.                 

3.                Different aspects of religion

4.                Every character was a sinner in malta rather he belongs to any religion

5.                Maltese society waas full of evil hypocrisy, actually it was society not religion

6.                Each n everyone was ignored of religion, but not of worldy success.

7.                Machiavellian approach, utilitarian approach

8.                Religion was tackles as a tool.

9.                Discuss the character of Barabas in the play Jew of Malta? 2018

10.           Jew of Malta is a tragi-comedy, satire of religious hypocrisy and Machiavellian scheming. Agree or disagree with examples. 2017

Tragi-comedy definition

Tragedy,” says Aristotle, “is an imitation [mimēsis] of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude…through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions.”

Comedy ,” says Aristotle, “is an imitation [mimēsis] of a non-serious action . of men worse than the average ,

 

11.           Renaissance spirit and Machiavellian policy dominate “jew of Malta. Elaborate? 2017 composite.

12.           Enlist the three major themes in jew of Malta 2016

Hypocrisy

Religion is childish tool

Machiavellian approach

Revenge and hatred

Lust for wealth

13.           What role does Abigail play within the text? Is she a tragic heroine, a disloyal daughter, or a victim to the prejudice of her peers? 2015 composite

 

14.           Discuss in detail, the character of Ferneze in jew of Malta?

levels of linguistics 2

things fall apart introduction part 1

LANGUAGE IN THE HEART OF THE DARKNESS

 

Conrad’s Use of Language in Heart of Darkness

Marlow constantly uses vague and often redundant phrases like “unspeakable secrets” and “inconceivable mystery.” At other times, however, he is capable of powerful imagery and considerable eloquence. Why does Marlow use vague and “inconclusive” language so frequently?

In its treatment of imperialism and individual experience, Heart of Darkness is on many levels a story about ambiguity. Thus, Marlow’s use of language is at the very least thematic. Throughout the book, words assume a bizarre, almost fetishistic power: “ivory,” for example, becomes almost more concrete than the elephant tusks themselves. The name “Kurtz” also takes on a life of its own, as it comes to stand for a set of legends and rumors rather than an actual man. Marlow becomes suspicious of words, as they threaten to overtake and distort the meaning they are supposed to convey. On the one hand, words fail to reflect reality adequately, and reality is often so paradoxical that the words don’t exist to describe it; but, on the other hand, words sometimes take on an independent life of their own. Marlow’s vague terminology, in addition to possessing a lyrical beauty, helps him to negotiate the dual threats of language.

Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad.

In his critical text The Great Tradition F.R. Leavis is interested in Conrad’s use of the English language, in light of it being his third, possibly fourth language, after Polish, French and Russian. He recounts a conversation on the subject:

‘I remember remarking to Andre Chevrillon how surprising a choice it was on Conrad’s part to write in English, especially seeing he was so clearly a student of the French masters. And I remember the reply, to the effect that it wasn’t at all surprising, since Conrad’s work couldn’t have been written in French. M. Chevrillon, with the authority of a perfect bilingual, went on to explain in terms of the characteristics of the two languages why it had to be English. Conrad’s themes and interests demanded the concreteness and action – the dramatic energy – of English.’

This is true so far as it goes, but in reading Heart of Darkness, it soon becomes evident that there is another aspect of the English language that fascinates Conrad, which is quite opposite to ‘the concreteness and action’ described by Chevrillon. This is its capacity for ambiguity. Indeed, one strong theme of Heart of Darkness is how language can deceive, and how inadequate it can be for expressing ‘the significantly unfamiliar’.

When Leavis comes to tackle Heart of Darkness in the chapter on Conrad in The Great Tradition, he concedes that this novella is ‘by common consent one of Conrad’s best things’, but then spends a great part of his discussion criticising its use of language.

His criticism of Heart of Darkness is consistent with his earlier characterisation of English as a language of action. After quoting at length some passages that demonstrate ‘Conrad’s art at its best’ (passages that describe action), he then goes on to focus on a perceived weakness of the text:

‘There are, however, places in Heart of Darkness where we become aware of comment as an interposition, and worse, as an intrusion, at times an exasperating one. Hadn’t he, we find ourselves asking, overworked “inscrutable”, “inconceivable”, “unspeakable” and that kind of word already? – yet still they recur. Is anything added to the oppressive mysteriousness of the Congo by such sentences as: “It was the stillness of an implacable force brooding over an inscrutable intention” -?’

Leavis insists that the ‘effect is not to magnify but rather to muffle’. But here he misses the point. For it seems to me clear that Conrad’s intention is exactly that – to make us aware of the inadequacy of these type of words. The intrusion is deliberate, and is not meant to clarify his meaning, but the opposite – to expose the impotence of language. It’s at the points where Conrad most wants to drive home the hollowness at the core of language itself that he uses this refined and sophisticated language, four- and five-syllable words such as those given as examples by Leavis: ‘inscrutable’, ‘inexorable’, inconceivable’, ‘implacable’.

Poetic Language in Heart of Darkness

We must also be aware of Conrad’s use of reptition. Whenever the language in Heart of Darkness becomes at once more sophisticated and ambiguous, the phrases he uses resound and act as a kind of ‘motif’ throughout the text. This is a genuinely poetic use of language, not in the sense of poetic evocation, but in the sense that language is made to draw attention to itself. The repetition, much like the function of rhyme, allieration, assonance, and so on, brings our attention to the words themselves, and gives us a heightened sensitivity to their function. In Heart of Darkness, the really radical point of this is to expose their lack of meaning.

For example, take the fact that in the first three pages he reiterates the word ‘brooding’ five times, sometimes in succeeding paragraphs, and always related to the word ‘gloom’, with which it creates a resounding poetic assonance:

• ‘The air was dark above Gravesend, and farther back still seemed condensed into a mournful gloom, brooding motionless over the biggest, and the greatest, town on earth.’
• ‘It was difficult to realize his work was not out there in the luminous estuary, but behind him, within the brooding gloom’.
• ‘Only the gloom to the west, brooding over the upper reaches, became more sombre every minute, as if angered by the approach of the sun.’
• ‘And at last, in its curved and imperceptible fall, the sun sank low, and from glowing white changed to a dull red without rays and without heat, as if about to out suddenly, stricken to death by the touch of that gloom brooding over a crowd of men.’
• ‘And farther west on the upper reaches the place of the monstrous town was still marked ominously on the sky, a brooding gloom in sunshine, a lurid glare under the stars.’

We have all, I’m sure, had the experience of repeating the same word incessantly to the point where we lose its meaning and it becomes merely a sound, and this is part of Conrad’s intention here.

Language and Deception

The theme of the capacity of language to deceive has been commented on by many critics. Kurtz was ‘just a word to me’, says Marlow. He talks of his disappointment when he believes he will not meet Kurtz, and says:

‘I made the strange discovery that I had never imagined him as doing, you know, but as discoursing. I didn’t say to myself,  “Now I will never see him'”, or “Now I will never shake him by the hand,” but, “Now I will never hear him.” The man presented himself as a voice.’

As Marlow continues to explore this disappointment, the same stretching of language we’ve seen earlier is used to heighten our awareness of its emptiness – polysyllabic words like ‘inestimable’ and ‘impalpable’ return – while Marlow’s own language staggers before falling into impotence:

‘I was cut to the quick at the idea of having lost the inestimable privilege of listening to the gifted Kurtz. Of course I was wrong. The privilege was waiting for me. Oh yes, I heard more than enough. And I was right too. A voice. He was very little more than a voice. And I heard – him – it – this voice – other voices – all of them were so little more than voices – and the memory of that time itself lingers around me, impalpable, like a dying vibration of one immense jabber, silly, atrocious, sordid, savage, or simply mean, without any kind of sense. Voices, voices – even the girl herself – now -‘

Conrad has deliberately forced the reader to share Marlow’s frustrations with the ‘immense jabber’, and the ‘silly’ words. Indeed, F.R. Leavis’s frustrations with the language are exactly of the sort intended by the author. The use of the word ‘impalpable’ in this very sentence is not there for its meaning – it’s there because it exposes its own lack of meaning. We have, as Leavis points out, already had a great deal of this word at certain points throughout the story, and when it reappears, the repitition strikes us and its emptiness is reinforced.

There are many examples of this use of language to elaborate the themes of the novella, but perhaps the most germane to its most dominant theme is the nature of Kurtz’s report for the International Society for the Supression of Savage Customs. Marlow tells us that Kurtz’s paper was ‘vibrating with eloquence’, and ‘the peroration was magnificent’ – sophisticated language to describe sophisticated language. But the striking thing is the hurried scrawl at the end: “Exterminate all the brutes!” Quite apart from the sentiment behind this scrawl, there is its choice of words. ‘Exterminate’ is itself one of those polysyllabic, sophisticated  words, and its use here suggests the ultimate horror that Conrad has to impart to us; which is that, far from reverting to savagery, Kurtz has embraced it. Marlow has told us this horrifying truth about humanity in direct words earlier in Heart of Darkness:

‘It was unearthly and the men were… No they were not inhuman. Well you know, that was the worst of it – the suspicion of their not being inhuman.’

As Thomas Osborne says in his excellent essay ‘Conrad’s Darkness’:

‘Barbarism is not a lapsed state or a state that is, in an evolutionary sense, prior to civilization. It is not the product of degeneration. It is rather that civilization seems to be only the name we give to our temporary, fragile sheltering from barbarism and darkness – a fragility that is protected only in the most mundane of things, in work, in collective life.’

And, we might add, in words. If Kurtz was in a lapsed state of barbarism he would have scrawled ‘Kill all the brutes’ at the foot of his paper – if he remained capable of writing at all. The word ‘exterminate’ is a chilling reminder that the civilizing impulse, and the language that accompanies it, is still very much a part of the transformed Kurtz. This is the real horror, the real darkness at the heart of this story.

Update

Since writing this post, I read an essay entitled The Failure of the Imagination (1965) by James Guetti (published in Casebook Series: Heart of Darkness, Nostromo and Under Western Eyes). Although coming at the novel from a different angle, parts of the essay cover similar ground to that covered in my post above, and (I think) helps to support its case. Here’s a quote:

Language has meaning, in Heart of Darkness, in terms of the exteriors of experience – the coast of a wilderness, the surface of a river, a man’s appearance and his voice – and this meaning can exist as a reality so long as one remains ignorant, deliberately or otherwise, of all that lies beyond these exteriors, of what language cannot penetrate. For with the intimation that there is something beyond verbal and, indeed, the intellectual capacities, comes the realisation that language is fiction. And if we desire to discover a reality greater than that of words, we are confronted not with the truth within, but with the real disparity between the gimmickry of the human mind and this truth. Because Marlow wishes to know more than surfaces, the reality of surfaces is destroyed. His knowledge of reality may now exist only as his knowledge of the unbridgeable separation between the world of man’s disciplined imagination and that something or nothing to which this world is assumed to relate.