"Lexical Studies"曆♂️♀️
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· A "lexeme" is a word as an item of
meaning and is represented as a different headword in dictionaries.
meaning and is represented as a different headword in dictionaries.
· "Citation forms" of lexemes are the base forms and are normally used as the headword.
For example 'sing' NOT sings.
Irregular word forms often have separate entries. e.g. 'sung', 'feet', 'wore' etc.
For example 'sing' NOT sings.
Irregular word forms often have separate entries. e.g. 'sung', 'feet', 'wore' etc.
· Homograph = same spelling, different pronunciation and meaning. (e.g. bow)
· Homophone = same pronunciation different spelling and meaning. (e.g. feet/feat)
· Homonym = same spelling and pronunciation
different meaning. (e.g. bank, ear). These are 2 different headwords in dictionaries.
different meaning. (e.g. bank, ear). These are 2 different headwords in dictionaries.
· Polysemy = a word with a number of different senses of single meaning. (e.g row, foot). These are two variants of the same headword in dictionaries.
· The difference between homonyms and polysemous meanings is usually decided on
by etymology
(i.e. where the words come from).
by etymology
(i.e. where the words come from).
· The craft of the lexicographer is
primarily the writing of definitions.
primarily the writing of definitions.
· Dictionary definitions are forms of
paraphrase (i.e. putting a word into other words
paraphrase (i.e. putting a word into other words
· ==Definitions can use==
(1) Hyponymy is a relation between two words
in which the meaning of one of the words
includes the meaning of the other word.
The lexical relation corresponding to the
inclusion of one class in another is
hyponymy.
A hyponym is a subordinate, specific term
whose referent is included in the referent
of super ordinate term.
E.g. Blue, Green are kinds of color. They
are specific colors and color is a general
term for them.
Therefore, color is called the super
ordinate term, and blue, red, green, yellow,
etc are called hyponyms
e.g. Cutlery has the hyponyms knife, fork and spoon. Spoon in turn has the
hyponyms teaspoon, tablespoon etc.
the hierarchial relationship between meanings of lexemes.)
(1) Hyponymy is a relation between two words
in which the meaning of one of the words
includes the meaning of the other word.
The lexical relation corresponding to the
inclusion of one class in another is
hyponymy.
A hyponym is a subordinate, specific term
whose referent is included in the referent
of super ordinate term.
E.g. Blue, Green are kinds of color. They
are specific colors and color is a general
term for them.
Therefore, color is called the super
ordinate term, and blue, red, green, yellow,
etc are called hyponyms
e.g. Cutlery has the hyponyms knife, fork and spoon. Spoon in turn has the
hyponyms teaspoon, tablespoon etc.
the hierarchial relationship between meanings of lexemes.)
2. Synonymy .
Synonymy is used to mean sameness of
meaning. Synonym is a word, which has the
same or nearly the same meaning as
another word. There are several ways in
which they differ
1.Some set of synonyms belong to different
dialects of language, e.g. Fall - used in
united states, Autumn-used in some western
countries.
2.There is a similar situation but are more
problematic one with words that are used in
different styles or registers.
3.Some words may be said to differ only in
their emotive or evaluative meanings.
4.Words are collocationally restricted they
occur only in conjunction with other words.
5.Synonyms are often said to differ only in
their connotation.
Examples-hid, conceal,
It is very hard to list absolute synonyms:
words, which are identical both in
denotation and connotation.
e.g. purpose - intention -
reason. ( = same or similar meanings). Strict
synonymy does NOT occur within a
language.
Synonymy is used to mean sameness of
meaning. Synonym is a word, which has the
same or nearly the same meaning as
another word. There are several ways in
which they differ
1.Some set of synonyms belong to different
dialects of language, e.g. Fall - used in
united states, Autumn-used in some western
countries.
2.There is a similar situation but are more
problematic one with words that are used in
different styles or registers.
3.Some words may be said to differ only in
their emotive or evaluative meanings.
4.Words are collocationally restricted they
occur only in conjunction with other words.
5.Synonyms are often said to differ only in
their connotation.
Examples-hid, conceal,
It is very hard to list absolute synonyms:
words, which are identical both in
denotation and connotation.
e.g. purpose - intention -
reason. ( = same or similar meanings). Strict
synonymy does NOT occur within a
language.
(3) Antonyms
The word antonymy derives from the greek
root anti(opposite) and denotes opposition
in meaning.
Antonymy or oppositeness of meaning has
long been recognized as one of the most
important semantic relations .e.g. quick-
slow, big-small, long-short, rich-poor, etc.
Antonyms are divided in to several
root anti(opposite) and denotes opposition
in meaning.
Antonymy or oppositeness of meaning has
long been recognized as one of the most
important semantic relations .e.g. quick-
slow, big-small, long-short, rich-poor, etc.
Antonyms are divided in to several
types-1.gradable antonyms/pairs,
2.nongradable antonyms/complementaries,
and 3.reversives
4.converse pairs
2.nongradable antonyms/complementaries,
and 3.reversives
4.converse pairs
1.gradable antonyms/pairs-They can be
used in comparative constructions like
bigger than or smaller than, etc. Also the
negative of one member of the gradable
pair does not necessarily imply the
opposite. e.g.not hot does not mean cold.
used in comparative constructions like
bigger than or smaller than, etc. Also the
negative of one member of the gradable
pair does not necessarily imply the
opposite. e.g.not hot does not mean cold.
2.nongradable antonyms/complementaries-
The relation of oppositeness is that which
holds between the pairs as single:married,
man:woman,etc.
The denial of one implies the assertion of
the other and the assertion of one implies
the denial of the other. It is the
characteristic of complimentaries.
3. reversives-It is important to avoid most
antonym pairs as one word meaning the
negative of another.e.g.tie-untie.
4.converse pairs –Another kind of antonymy
is forming converse pairs. e.g.
Converseness is used to refer to the
relationship between buy and sell.
(4) Metonymy
A metonym substitutes for the object that is
meant the name of an attribute or concept
associated with the object. The use of
‘crown’ for ‘king’ is an e.g. of metonymy.
This term has been derived from Greek
word meta means after and onoma means
substitution for name.
e.g. gray hair can be used for old age.
The distinction between metonymy and
metaphor is made in linguistics. For
instance, the phrase ‘to fish pearls’
metonymy is used and in the phrase ‘fishing
for information’ metaphor is used. In
cognitive linguistics, the word metonymy
stands for the use of one basic
characteristic to identify a more complex
entity. Metonymy according to American
Linguist Bloomfield is nearness in pace and
time.
More precisely it focuses on specific
aspects of objects having direct physical
association to what is being referred to.
The relation of oppositeness is that which
holds between the pairs as single:married,
man:woman,etc.
The denial of one implies the assertion of
the other and the assertion of one implies
the denial of the other. It is the
characteristic of complimentaries.
3. reversives-It is important to avoid most
antonym pairs as one word meaning the
negative of another.e.g.tie-untie.
4.converse pairs –Another kind of antonymy
is forming converse pairs. e.g.
Converseness is used to refer to the
relationship between buy and sell.
(4) Metonymy
A metonym substitutes for the object that is
meant the name of an attribute or concept
associated with the object. The use of
‘crown’ for ‘king’ is an e.g. of metonymy.
This term has been derived from Greek
word meta means after and onoma means
substitution for name.
e.g. gray hair can be used for old age.
The distinction between metonymy and
metaphor is made in linguistics. For
instance, the phrase ‘to fish pearls’
metonymy is used and in the phrase ‘fishing
for information’ metaphor is used. In
cognitive linguistics, the word metonymy
stands for the use of one basic
characteristic to identify a more complex
entity. Metonymy according to American
Linguist Bloomfield is nearness in pace and
time.
More precisely it focuses on specific
aspects of objects having direct physical
association to what is being referred to.
(5)
Denotation. e.g. caviar : the salted roe of
a large fish. ( = description with attempted
objectivity)
Denotation. e.g. caviar : the salted roe of
a large fish. ( = description with attempted
objectivity)
(6) Connotation . e.g. caviar : luxury, high
living and sumptuous food. ( = association which is necessarily subjective)
living and sumptuous food. ( = association which is necessarily subjective)
(7) . Componential Analysis. e.g. girl is
[+Human] [-Adult] [+Female]. ( = meanings of lexemes are analysed into componentswhich are compared across groups. It is, however, a limited form of analysis.
[+Human] [-Adult] [+Female]. ( = meanings of lexemes are analysed into componentswhich are compared across groups. It is, however, a limited form of analysis.
(8) Collocation . = the combination of words
that have a certain high mutual expectancy.
Polysemous meanings are often related to the different collocations. e.g. strong in:
strong tea, a strong man, a strong
personality. There is collocational restriction imposed on some words. e.g. rancid with only butter or bacon. However, collocation
does not seem to be important in
dictionaries as it is not used systematically.
that have a certain high mutual expectancy.
Polysemous meanings are often related to the different collocations. e.g. strong in:
strong tea, a strong man, a strong
personality. There is collocational restriction imposed on some words. e.g. rancid with only butter or bacon. However, collocation
does not seem to be important in
dictionaries as it is not used systematically.
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